Animal Feed Protein Research Articles

The Genome of the Yellow Mealworm, Tenebrio molitor: It's Bigger Than You Think.

Insects are a sustainable source of protein for human food and animal feed. We present a genome assembly, CRISPR gene editing, and life stage-specific transcriptomes for the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, one of the most intensively farmed insects worldwide. Long and short reads and long-range data were obtained from a T. molitor male pupa. Sequencing transcripts from 12 T. molitor life stages resulted in 279 million reads for gene prediction and genetic engineering. A unique plasmid delivery system containing guide RNAs targeting the eye color gene vermilion flanking the muscle actin gene promoter and EGFP marker was used in CRISPR/Cas9 transformation. The assembly is approximately 53% of the genome size of 756.8 ± 9.6 Mb, measured using flow cytometry. Assembly was complicated by a satellitome of at least 11 highly conserved satDNAs occupying 28% of the genome. The injection of the plasmid into embryos resulted in knock-out of Tm vermilion and knock-in of EGFP. The genome of T. molitor is longer than current assemblies (including ours) due to a substantial amount (26.5%) of only one highly abundant satellite DNA sequence. Genetic sequences and transformation tools for an insect important to the food and feed industries will promote the sustainable utilization of mealworms and other farmed insects.

Signaling in Legume-Rhizobia Symbiosis.

Legumes represent an important source of food protein for human nutrition and animal feed. Therefore, sustainable production of legume crops is an issue of global importance. It is well-known that legume-rhizobia symbiosis allows an increase in the productivity and resilience of legume crops. The efficiency of this mutualistic association strongly depends on precise regulation of the complex interactions between plant and rhizobia. Their molecular dialogue represents a complex multi-staged process, each step of which is critically important for the overall success of the symbiosis. In particular, understanding the details of the molecular mechanisms behind the nodule formation and functioning might give access to new legume cultivars with improved crop productivity. Therefore, here we provide a comprehensive literature overview on the dynamics of the signaling network underlying the development of the legume-rhizobia symbiosis. Thereby, we pay special attention to the new findings in the field, as well as the principal directions of the current and prospective research. For this, here we comprehensively address the principal signaling events involved in the nodule inception, development, functioning, and senescence.

Production of single cell protein rich in potassium by Nectaromyces rattus using biogas slurry and molasses

Single-cell protein (SCP) is a vital supplement for animal protein feed. This study utilized biogas slurry and sugarcane molasses to ferment Nectaromyces rattus for the production of SCP. The optimal batch fermentation conditions were obtained in a 5L jar with a tank pressure of 0.1 MPa, an initial speed of 300 rpm, and an inoculum volume of 30%. The highest cell dry weight concentrations of the fed-batch fermentation without reflux and the fed-batch fermentation with reflux were 46.33 g/L and 29.71 g/L, respectively. The nitrogen conversion rates (47.05% and 44.12%) and the cell yields of total organic carbon (1 g/g and 1.17 g/g) of both fermentation modes were compared. The SCP contained 42.32% amino acids. Its high concentrations of potassium (19859.96 mg/kg) and phosphorus (7310.44 mg/kg) present a novel approach for the extraction of these essential nutrients from biogas slurry. The enrichment of K was related to the H+ efflux and sugar transport.

Effect of microbial fermentation on the quality of soybean meal

SummarySoybean meal is an important and inexpensive source of protein in food and animal feed, and contains anti‐nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors, antigenic proteins, oligosaccharides, phytic acids and lectins, which limit its application. Microbial fermentation has the capability to improve the nutritional value and biological activities of soybean meal by changing its natural composition. Fermentation results in the degradation of anti‐nutritional factors in soybean meal, an increased amount of small molecular protein peptides and improved content of isoflavone aglycone. However, the nutritional composition and biological activities of the resulting fermented products differ due to the different microbial species and conditions used for fermentation. Compared to soybean meal, fermented soybean meal has several beneficial effects such as digestibility, antioxidant and hypoallergenicity. The objective of this review is to discuss the fermentation processes of soybean meal, as well as outlines some biological activities associated with it. Furthermore, the current application of fermented soybean meal is also summarised.

Nursery diet exclusion during the development of Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in restaurant food waste

Abstract The black soldier fly (BSF) (Hermetia illucens) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) is a valuable commercial insect for its nutritional and productive aspects, ability to cycle organic waste, and use as protein in animal feed. Its rearing is done in two steps, the ‘nursery diet’, and the ‘rearing’ diet, but the nursery diet may increase costs and labour. The effect of the nursery diet time on larval performance, substrate reduction, and larval nutritional composition were evaluated to determine whether it is possible to remove this step from the BSF production process. Chicken feed was used as nursery diet and restaurant food waste for the rearing diet. The performance and chemical composition of BSF larvae with eggs inoculated directly into the restaurant food waste and incubated in the nursery diet were evaluated for six, eight, ten, and 12 days. Substrate reduction was higher for larvae raised without nursery diet. The final weight, growth rate, and number of live larvae were the same for larvae reared with or without nursery diet. Larvae reared without nursery diet had higher crude protein, lower dry matter, and ash content than larvae on nursery diet. The nursery diet did not improve most of the characteristics analysed, and the nutritional levels of the larvae. This may suggest that this step could be ignored when rearing BSF larvae on restaurant waste.

Distribution and Bioresource Potential of Duckweed (Lemna minor L.) in Maiduguri, Nigeria

Lemna minor L. (Arales: Lemnaceae) is a small, delicate, free-floating aquatic plant that grows mostly in a nutrient-enriched environment. It has wide applications in agriculture and biosciences. This study evaluated the physicochemical factors affecting the distribution, biomass, and proximate composition of L. minor in waterways within Maiduguri metropolis, northeastern Nigeria. Duckweeds were sampled with a quadrat (25 × 25 cm) along imaginary transect lines from different areas of the metropolis between the early hours of 9:00 and11:00 a.m. in December 2021. Some physicochemical parameters of the sites were measured. Proximate composition and biomass were determined. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that PC1, PC2, and PC3 explained 79.2% of the variation. The strongest positive correlations were between Mg and alkalinity, while K, Mg, alkalinity and TSS were negatively correlated. Proximate composition indicated 11.4-18.21% crude protein and 45.92-48.47% carbohydrate in the samples. Bray-Curti’s index indicated that duckweeds in the Custom area and Bolori were the most similar (0.99). Samples collected from the Unimaid area recorded the highest wet biomass (5.0 ± 0.2 g/m2), while a sample from Umarari was the lowest (2.24 ± 0.1 g/m2). The physicochemical parameters of the site provided suitable factors for laboratory culture and large-scale production. The findings provide baseline data on the ecology and potential of duckweed as a cost-effective source of crude protein (CP) and other essential nutrients for aquaculture and animal feed, as well as a model plant for aquatic ecology, the environment and biotechnological research. Further studies to explore the applications of L. minor in different fields were recommended.

The Biochemical Methane Potential from Washing Process Wastewater in Black Soldier Fly Larvae Breeding by Inca Peanut Meal

The processing of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) for high-quality animal feed protein is being promoted to transformation at the industry level in Thailand. This is due to the fact that the washing process of BSFL generates wastewater with high organic matter that must be treated. This research was interested in studying the potential of methane production from wastewater in the BSFL washing process that is fed by Inca meal and mixed with inoculum sludge from a swine biogas production system at different substrate and inoculum ratio of 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 by gVS add. The system also controlled the temperature within the mesophilic condition at 35 ± 2°C. The result of this study shows that the optimum ratio which the most biochemical methane potential (BMP) was 1:1 on 45 days of fermentation period. This optimum ratio can also generate the cumulative methane gas production of 401.51 ± 24.42 NmL/gVS add with the highest methane content of 67.90%. The VS removal was 23.76% and the COD removal was 68.51%, which shows the BSFL washing process wastewater can be a substrate for biogas production and further expanded to the industry level.

Optimization of Production Methods for Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens L.) in Burkina Faso.

Larvae of Hermetia illucens are a valuable source of protein for animal feed that can be produced by exposing animal and agro-industrial wastes to naturally occurring flies. The objective of this study was to improve techniques for obtaining H. illucens larvae to feed livestock in Burkina Faso. An experiment was conducted to determine the most favourable substrates and seasons for larval production. The substrates used were poultry manure, local beer waste, local beer waste mixed with poultry manure, cottonseed cake, and industrial brewery waste mixed with poultry manure. The production of larvae was carried out in four different seasons. The effect of the container's oviposition area (0.07 m2, 0.09 m2, and 0.11 m2) and the type of container (terracotta, plastic, and iron) on larval production was also assessed. The produced larval biomass was high during, or just after, the rainy season but very low during the cool dry and hot dry seasons. Yields were higher with local beer waste mixed with poultry manure followed by local beer waste and cottonseed cake. The average mass of H. illucens larvae increased slightly with the oviposition area for the same amount of substrate. Iron and terracotta containers provided better results than plastic containers. The suitability of this production method for H. illucens larvae production is discussed.

Method for obtaining gluten-free high protein animal feeds

Abstract. The purpose of the study is to select suitable flour according to its mineral composition to obtain gluten-free high protein animal feed. The research found that whole grain rice flour, millet, chickpea, corn, chalk and primex additive are suitable for gluten-free feed and have good technological parameters. The animal feed is with high protein and fats. They are with low carbohydrates composition and used for dogs and birds. The new products are without GMO, artificial colors and flavors. They are with Fe, Zn, Ca.

Energy Efficiency and Environmental Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery Technologies in Fishmeal Production Plants: A Case Study in Vietnam

The fishmeal production industry is essential for providing protein for animal feed in the aquaculture sector. However, the industry faces challenges related to energy consumption and environmental sustainability. This study evaluates the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of waste heat recovery (WHR) technologies in a fishmeal production plant in Vietnam. Data were collected from the plant between 2016 and 2022, and a specific energy consumption (SEC) indicator and a comprehensive methodology were utilized. Implementing an economizer as a WHR technology resulted in a 55.5% decrease in SEC compared to the state before installation. The enhanced energy efficiency also translated to reduced energy consumption per output unit. Moreover, the economizer contributed to annual energy savings of 4537.57 GJ/year and cost savings of USD 26,474.49. Additionally, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with producing one ton of fishmeal decreased by 58.37%. These findings highlight the potential for WHR technologies to improve energy efficiency and reduce the environmental footprint of fishmeal production. The study’s results provide valuable insights for practitioners and policymakers in promoting energy efficiency practices and reducing environmental impact in this and similar industries.

A Living Lab approach for sustainable intensification of dairy production: A case study of an organic and a conventional farm in northern Italy

Working on feed production and feeding strategies is one of the key ways of mitigating dairy impacts and of increasing dairy efficiency and the nutritional quality of milk, all of which are priorities for global dairy sector stakeholders. Feed production, both on farm and off-farm, is one of the main contributors to dairy farm greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and it is known that the adopted feeding strategies influence farm nutrient balance, nutrient losses to the environment, and milk fatty acid profile. This study has been aimed at improving farm efficiency, environmental sustainability, and milk nutritional quality by acting on the management of the cropping system, and by promoting the on-farm production of feeds of high nutritional quality and high fiber digestibility in order to improve the self-sufficiency of metabolizable energy (ME) and protein (CP) for animal feeding. A multi-year study was conducted to analyze the shift in cropping system management on an organic farm and on a conventional dairy farm, considered as a “lighthouses”, and which were part of a Living Lab. Two 3-year pre-change periods (PRE) and two 3-year post-change periods (POST) with 2 years of transition were considered. The main actions performed on the management of the forage system involved changes in the crop destination, in the harvest schedule and in the conservation methods. All the data necessary to determine the dry matter (DM) yield, the forage quality, in terms of crude protein (CP), the metabolizable energy (ME), the nitrogen balance, and the carbon footprint of the two farms were measured or collected on farm. One kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) was used as a functional unit. In the POST periods, the milk production intensity (t FPCM/ha) improved and the ME and CP self-sufficiency of the heard increased on both farms. Both farms showed a 9.8% reduction of the Carbon Footprint (CF), and a reduction in the nitrogen surplus at the farm level. The amounts of C18:3 n-3 and n-3 fatty acids increased on both farms in the POST period. The results of this work show that it is possible to intensify milk production and mitigate the impacts of dairy farms by acting on the management of the forage system and on the feed strategies, using a synergistic Living Lab approach to achieve sustainable intensification.

A temporal analysis and response to nitrate availability of 3D root system architecture in diverse pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) accessions.

Roots have a central role in plant resource capture and are the interface between the plant and the soil that affect multiple ecosystem processes. Field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) is a diploid annual cover crop species that has potential utility for reducing soil erosion and nutrient losses; and has rich seeds (30-35% oil) amenable to biofuel production and as a protein animal feed. The objective of this research was to (1) precisely characterize root system architecture and development, (2) understand plastic responses of pennycress roots to nitrate nutrition, (3) and determine genotypic variance available in root development and nitrate plasticity. Using a root imaging and analysis pipeline, the 4D architecture of the pennycress root system was characterized under four nitrate regimes, ranging from zero to high nitrate concentrations. These measurements were taken at four time points (days 5, 9, 13, and 17 after sowing). Significant nitrate condition response and genotype interactions were identified for many root traits, with the greatest impact observed on lateral root traits. In trace nitrate conditions, a greater lateral root count, length, density, and a steeper lateral root angle was observed compared to high nitrate conditions. Additionally, genotype-by-nitrate condition interaction was observed for root width, width:depth ratio, mean lateral root length, and lateral root density. These findings illustrate root trait variance among pennycress accessions. These traits could serve as targets for breeding programs aimed at developing improved cover crops that are responsive to nitrate, leading to enhanced productivity, resilience, and ecosystem service.

Pengaruh Komposisi Bahan Organik terhadap Pertumbuhan Maggot Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier Fly)

The Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae, commonly known as maggot, have gained attention as an alternative source of protein for animal feed. Nutrition is a crucial factor in the growth of BSF larvae, and different organic materials have varying nutritional contents. This study aims to investigate the effect of different types and combinations of organic materials on the growth of BSF maggot and to determine the optimal type and combination for their growth. The results of the study indicate that a combination of rice bran and fruit/vegetable waste (50:50) provides the best growth for BSF maggot with an average weight of 454 g. A combination of rice bran and tofu dregs (50:50) yields a growth rate of 447 g, and chicken manure (100%) yields a growth rate of 435 g. These findings can serve as a reference for the development of alternative maggot-based feed in the livestock industry.

Application of Machine Learning Techniques to Discern Optimal Rearing Conditions for Improved Black Soldier Fly Farming.

As the world population continues to grow, there is a need to come up with alternative sources of feed and food to combat the existing challenge of food insecurity across the globe. The use of insects, particularly the black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomydiae), as a source of feed stands out due to its sustainability and reliability. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have the ability to convert organic substrates to high-quality biomass rich in protein for animal feed. They can also produce biodiesel and bioplastic and have high biotechnological and medical potential. However, current BSFL production is low to meet the industry's needs. This study used machine learning modeling approaches to discern optimal rearing conditions for improved BSF farming. The input variables studied include the cycle time in each rearing phase (i.e., the rearing period in each phase), feed formulation type, length of the beds (i.e, rearing platforms) at each phase, amount of young larvae added in the first phase, purity score (i.e, percentage of BSFL after separating from the substrate), feed depth, and the feeding rate. The output/target variable was the mass of wet larvae harvested (kg per meter) at the end of the rearing cycle. This data was trained on supervised machine learning algorithms. From the trained models, the random forest regressor presented the best root mean squared error (RMSE) of 2.91 and an R-squared value of 80.9%, implying that the model can be used to effectively monitor and predict the expected weight of BSFL to be harvested at the end of the rearing process. The results established that the top five ranked important features that inform optimal production are the length of the beds, feed formulation used, the average number of young larvae loaded in each bed, feed depth, and cycle time. Therefore, in that priority, it is expected that tuning the mentioned parameters to fall within the required levels would result in an increased mass of BSFL harvest. These data science and machine learning techniques can be adopted to understand rearing conditions and optimize the production/farming of BSF as a source of feed for animals e.g., fish, pigs, poultry, etc. A high production of these animals guarantees more food for humans, thus reducing food insecurity.

Preparation and evaluation of certified reference materials for crude protein, crude fat, and crude ash in feed

Three new certified reference materials (CRMs) for crude protein, crude fat, and crude ash in animal feed were developed and characterized according to ISO 17034:2016 and ISO Guide 35:2017. The Kjeldahl, Soxhlet extraction, and ashing methods were employed to quantify these three components in candidate CRMs for swine feed, poultry feed, and fish feed. To improve the precision, the measurement methods were optimized on the basis of Directive 93/28/EEC, Directive 98/64/EC, and Directive 71/250/EEC and further validated using two existing CRMs (BCR-708 and BCR-709). The homogeneity, short- and long-term stability, and moisture content were evaluated. The certified values and their expanded uncertainties (k = 2.00) were determined through nine laboratories. The results for crude protein, crude fat, and crude ash were 14.7 ± 0.4, 5.19 ± 0.24, and 6.23 ± 0.14% for swine feed CRM; 22.7 ± 0.7, 5.16 ± 0.39, and 5.74 ± 0.18% for poultry feed CRM; and 35.6 ± 0.9, 9.29 ± 0.40, and 8.70 ± 0.25% for fish feed CRM, respectively. These three CRMs have been used in the comparison of Chinese feed quality testing laboratory systems and proved suitable for evaluating quality control in laboratories.

Origin, variation, and selection of natural alleles controlling flowering and adaptation in wild and cultivated soybean

Soybean (Glycine max) is an economically important crop worldwide, serving as a major source of oil and protein for human consumption and animal feed. Cultivated soybean was domesticated from wild soybean (Glycine soja) which both species are highly sensitive to photoperiod and can grow over a wide geographical range. The extensive ecological adaptation of wild and cultivated soybean has been facilitated by a series of genes represented as quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control photoperiodic flowering and maturation. Here, we review the molecular and genetic basis underlying the regulation of photoperiodic flowering in soybean. Soybean has experienced both natural and artificial selection during adaptation to different latitudes, resulting in differential molecular and evolutionary mechanisms between wild and cultivated soybean. The in-depth study of natural and artificial selection for the photoperiodic adaptability of wild and cultivated soybean provides an important theoretical and practical basis for enhancing soybean adaptability and yield via molecular breeding. In addition, we discuss the possible origin of wild soybean, current challenges, and future research directions in this important topic.

Особливості та перспективи використання рослинного білка в годівлі коропа (Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758) (огляд)

Purpose. Analysis of the state and prospects of the use of vegetable proteins of various methods of manufacture in carp feeding in view of their functional and technological characteristics as well as in accordance with their impact on fish productive parameters and the functional state of the fish body. Findings. The world resources of animal and vegetable protein were characterized, a comparative analysis of nutrition, digestibility and functional characteristic data of feed components was carried out. The protein needs of carp, the main object of aquaculture in Ukraine, were examined. It is noted that vegetable proteins are widely used in carp feeding, but there are a number of limiting factors for the complete replacement of animal proteins with vegetable ones. In particular, the main such factors are the content of anti-nutrients, low digestibility and unbalanced amino acid composition of feed components of plant origin. Modern approaches to the introduction of plant proteins into the composition of feeds have been analyzed, which allows increasing the efficiency of their use in animal husbandry in general, and in fish farming in particular. The expediency of using plant proteins processed by a technical method, single-cell proteins obtained by fermentation, concentrates produced by the extraction method, hydrolysates obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as whey-purified protein isolates in feed production were characterized. The effect of their use in fish feeding on the physiological and biochemical parameters of the fish body is considered. It is noted that the composition and digestibility of vegetable proteins may differ depending on the source and processing method. A comparison of the economic feasibility of feeding vegetable and animal proteins to different types of fish was made. The expediency and prospects of using vegetable protein in the conditions of aquaculture in Ukraine and in the cultivation of carp are outlined. Practical value. Modern approaches to the use of vegetable protein in fish feeding increase its biological value and availability of nutrients, which allows obtaining additional increases in the weight of fish, reduce production costs and improve the quality characteristics of the grown products. Keywords: vegetable protein feed, animal protein feed, aquaculture, carp, feeding, biological value, digestibility, productivity.

African traditional use of edible insects and challenges towards the future trends of food and feed

In the current times of climate change, the intense use of insects as a protein source is gaining popularity worldwide, and will likely contribute to increased nutrient intake in food and feed due to its nutritional, ecological, nutraceutical, and medicinal potential. Ancient traditional consumption of wild-harvested insects in Africa is a valuable but diminishing resource. There is a need for improved technology in insect rearing to match production with the current population pressure since we can no longer depend on wild collection. The current legislation within the European Union opens a pathway towards acceptance, increased consumption, and marketing of edible insects, which already had a big role in African nutrition as a portion of seasonal food. Food security and expensive animal protein sources are a setback in Africa and there is a need to search for alternative sources to curb malnutrition. Insect use in animal feed is gaining momentum in pig, fish, pet, and poultry feed. To meet the rising demand for insect protein in animal feed, it calls for new ways to increase availability while addressing food quality, safety, and environmental sustainability. Apart from their importance as a source of nutrients, insects help to recycle organic waste, and the remaining portion can be used in plant protection and as a soil modifier. This review, therefore, undertakes exploration and outlook on the ancient utilisation of edible insects in Africa, current efforts to improve through farming, and the challenges faced with the hope that traditional practices will shape the future of the edible insect industry.

Evaluating net energy and protein feed conversion efficiency for dairy ruminant systems in France

Modern systems of animal production are facing increasing challenges on issues such as animal welfare, product quality, and environmental impact. Ruminants in particular are often regarded as being inefficient with respect to feed conversion for both protein and energy. Efficiency is defined as the ratio between resources and production; when applied to dairy production systems, it corresponds to the total amount of feed (kg of dry matter of roughages and concentrates) consumed per kg of milk and meat produced. This ratio underlines the biological ability of dairy cows, ewes, and goats to convert feed into products that are edible by humans while maintaining other physiological functions. Feeds consumed by animals can be “human-edible”, i.e. directly usable for human nutrition (cereals, legumes, maize silage), or not (grasslands, wild grass areas). Calculations of livestock efficiency are strongly influenced by whether or not they consider, and distinguish between, the consumption of human-edible or -inedible plant resources (roughages and concentrates) as well as the production of edible and/or inedible animal products (e.g., milk, meat, wool, leather). An improved understanding of the inedible fraction of both energy and protein in animal feed will be invaluable in analyses of feed-food competition, especially in ruminants. In this study, we investigated the feed conversion efficiency (FCE) of dairy ruminant systems in France (cow, goat, ewe) with respect to both energy and protein. We hypothesized that FCE would be influenced by the composition of the diet and its grass content, as well as, by animal type. Data from a French database (Diapason) provided information on land, labor, herds, and production from 2012 to 2016 for 274 dairy goat farms, 108 dairy ewe farms, and 498 dairy cow farms. These herds consumed feeds that were human-edible (cereals, legumes, maize silage) as well as -inedible (grasslands, wild grass areas). We estimated that French dairy systems are, on average, net consumers of energy and net producers of protein, with higher efficiencies for grass-based systems compared to maize-based systems. At the national scale, average net protein efficiencies were 1.16, 1.12, and 1.88 for ewes, goats, and cows, respectively. These results on the net FCE in dairy systems will promote a more objective quantification of their contribution to food security, which should be taken into account in assessments of feed-food competition and its impact on human nutrition. When combined with other factors such as greenhouse gas emissions and land and resource use, such considerations will help to inform discussions of the future of livestock production.

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of a Wide Pisum spp. Core Collection.

Peas (Pisum sativum) are the fourth most cultivated pulses worldwide and a critical source of protein in animal feed and human food. Developing pea core collections improves our understanding of pea evolution and may ease the exploitation of their genetic diversity in breeding programs. We carefully selected a highly diverse pea core collection of 325 accessions and established their genetic diversity and population structure. DArTSeq genotyping provided 35,790 polymorphic DArTseq markers, of which 24,279 were SilicoDArT and 11,511 SNP markers. More than 90% of these markers mapped onto the pea reference genome, with an average of 2787 SilicoDArT and 1644 SNP markers per chromosome, and an average LD50 distance of 0.48 and 1.38 Mbp, respectively. The pea core collection clustered in three or six subpopulations depending on the pea subspecies. Many admixed accessions were also detected, confirming the frequent genetic exchange between populations. Our results support the classification of Pisum genus into two species, P. fulvum and P. sativum (including subsp. sativum, arvense, elatius, humile, jomardii and abyssinicum). In addition, the study showed that wild alleles were incorporated into the cultivated pea through the intermediate P. sativum subsp. jomardii and P. sativum subsp. arvense during pea domestication, which have important implications for breeding programs. The high genetic diversity found in the collection and the high marker coverage are also expected to improve trait discovery and the efficient implementation of advanced breeding approaches.