Animal Feed Protein Research Articles

Kajian Pengelolaan Biokonversi Sampah Organik melalui Budidaya Maggot Black Soldier Fly (Studi Kasus: PKPS Medan)

The cultivation of maggot Black Soldier Fly (BSF) is a bioconversion technology of organic matter that can be one solution to the problem of organic waste. This study aims to examine aspects of organic waste management through BSF Medan maggot cultivation, including operational technical, financing, institutional, regulatory and community and government participation aspects. This research is a descriptive observational study with an exploratory study approach using the interview method. Descriptive and quantitative data processing and analysis. Based on operational technical aspects, maggot cultivation has succeeded in converting organic waste into a source of animal feed protein and reducing the amount of organic waste. The amount of organic waste that is managed is 90kg/day with an effectiveness of 0.013% the total domestic waste in Medan. The financing and institutional aspects of waste management are managed in an organized manner through a cooperative body, namely the Primary Waste Management Cooperative (PKPS) Medan. The regulatory aspect that is used as reference is Medan Mayor Regulation No. 26 of 2019. Aspects of community participation directly from members of the cooperative and the Laucih wholesale market trader in Medan City. This bioconversion technology is able to overcome the problem of waste in an effort to reduce organic waste.

229 Yeast Proteins Extracted from Saccharomyces Cerevisiae as Alternative Sources of Protein in Swine Nutrition

Abstract Proteins obtained from microbial biomass like bacteria, yeast, and algae, coined as single cell proteins (SCP), are considered as new and unconventional sources of protein supply both for animal and human use. These microbes convert low value by-products and wastes into protein rich biomass through the process of fermentation. In this regard, yeast was the first microorganism used as source of protein in animal feed. Different industrial methods including plasmolysis, autolysis or enzyme digestions are used to extract the protein rich inner content of a yeast cell known as yeast extract (YE). The protein content of YE may vary depending on the method of extraction, but generally ranges between 50–60% and contains free amino acids and functional peptides. In swine the weaning transition is a critical period where piglets are exposed to different kinds of stresses including the abrupt change from milk to solid feed. To match the highly digestible and protein rich diet in milk, pig producers are using a highly complex diet containing animal products including spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) in the pre-starter diet. However, the use of animal products is under scrutiny for biosecurity reasons and SCP from yeast are emerging as good alternatives to replace animal products in piglet diets. Reports from various studies have shown proteins from YE can provide highly digestible proteins with good profile amino acids. Furthermore, it has been shown that yeast proteins improve health and performance of pigs by enhancing immunity and strengthening gut integrity of weaning piglets. Moreover, comparative animal studies in weaned piglets confirmed no significant difference between SDPP and YE proteins in energy content, AA composition, as well as apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of AA suggesting that SCP from yeast could be a good alternative to replace SDPP in weanling piglet diets.

The Microscopic Detection of Animal Proteins in Animal Feed Regarding Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

Abstract Due to the actuality of spongiform encephalopathies and their proven spreading by means of animal feed containing meat and bone meal, the description and measurement of osteocytic lacunae contributes to more easily distinguish bone fragments in meat and bone meal. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) have attracted a lot of attention, especially after 1986, when the first case of BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) was detected. Since the outbreak of spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the use of animal protein including bone meal as an ingredient in animal feed has been controlled by several regulations including Regulation (EC) 999/2001, Regulation (EC) 1774/2002, and Regulation (EC) 1234/2003. The classical microscopic method is the only official method for detecting animal protein in animal feed in the European Union (Commission Regulation (EC) 152/2009). By applying the microscopic method to the animal feed samples, we performed detection in order to determine the presence of animal proteins that originate from mammals and fish. The microscopic analysis of all 421 samples, of which 115 were raw materials for the production of animal feed, 230 were concentrates for ruminant nutrition and 76 were concentrates for non-ruminant nutrition (32 concentrates for laying hens and 44 concentrates for pigs), did not provide positive results, that is, no remains of animal tissues of mammalian origin were found in any specimen. Whereas in 10 out of 32 (31.25%) concentrates intended for non-ruminant nutrition (laying hens), pieces of fish tissue were found. In these samples, we usually detected the presence of fish bones, gills and scales.

THE IMPACT OF THE EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL STRATEGY ON SECURITY IN THE SUPPLY OF NATIVE PLANT PROTEIN FOR ANIMAL FEED IN POLAND

This article aims to indicate the potential impact of the European Green Deal strategy’s solutions on the production of native protein crops for animal feed and its role in achieving sovereignty in the supply of this raw material in Poland. Self-sufficiency in the supply of plant protein is a concern that has been recognized and widely discussed in the national and European scientific community among practitioners involved in the production of livestock feed and, above all, among politicians of the European Commission, which decides the final shape of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. The strategy adopted by the European Commission, referred to as the European Green Deal, proposes restrictions on the use of plant protection products and mineral fertilizers. This will not take place without having an impact on production and the economic situation in agriculture. The research was conducted based on Statistics Poland data and the results of scientific studies. It was concluded that the implementation of the proposed strategy could be a factor that activates the production of native leguminous plants due to their nitrogen-fixing properties. Consequently, this may contribute to an increase in the production of native plant protein for animal feed, and thus to a greater sovereignty in the supply of this raw material for feed purposes.

Formulation of Organic Wastes as Growth Media for Cultivation of Earthworm Nutrient-Rich Eisenia foetida

Inadequate management of solid organic waste can lead to the spread of diseases and negatively affects the environment. Fermentation and vermicomposting of organic waste could have dual benefits by generating earthworm biomass for a source of animal feed protein, and, at the same time, turning the organic waste into readily used compost. This study investigated the effect of an organic waste source (as a sole source or blended with others) totaling 24 media for the cultivation of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Eight media sources were applied, namely cow manure, horse manure, goat manure, broiler chicken manure, market organic waste, household organic waste, rice straw, and beef rumen content. E. foetida was cultivated for 40 days, then the number of cocoons, earthworms, and the total biomass weight were measured at the end of the cultivation. Results demonstrated that the media source affected E. foetida earthworm cultivation. The most effective media were those containing horse manure that led to the production of the highest earthworms and the highest biomass. The produced cocoons and earthworms were poorly correlated with an r-value of 0.26 and p-value of 0.21. Meanwhile, the number and weight of the earthworms correlated well with an r-value of 0.784 and p-value of <0.01. However, the average numbers and weights of the produced earthworms in the media containing horse manure, cow manure, goat manure, and non-blended organic waste were insignificant. Overall results suggest that blended organic wastes can undergo composting to produce nutrient-rich earthworm biomass while turning the solid organic waste into readily used compost.

An eco‐friendly management of organic waste by using exotic earthworms: A case study of revenue generation in Gandhi Zoological Park

AbstractBefore the start of vermicomposting, the large quantity of organic waste generated in the zoo was sold to the public at the rate of Rs. 500 per truck amount Rs. 9500 annually. However, the large profusion of waste was frequently left within the zoo premises imparting an ugly and unhygienic environment for the zoo. To make the park more attractive, self‐sustained (sold high‐quality vermicompost) and keep premises clean, a vermicomposting process was set up on a pilot basis. Vermicomposting of organic waste could have dual beneficial effects by generating an economically viable animal feed protein in the form of worm biomass while alleviating the negative effects of poor organic waste management. The aim of the study was the management of different organic wastes generated in the zoo by using exotic worms and makes the premises financially‐self dependent. The most dung‐producing animals in the zoo are herbivores and droppings of exotic birds are also included, on average below 200 kg or more waste is collected every week in the zoo. Analysis of different physico‐chemical properties of zoo vermicompost showed vermidegraded organic waste is a nutrient rich and eco‐friendly approach. Data were analyzed by using mean ± error.

The case for a wider range of flies for use in waste bioconversion

Bioconversion is the process whereby nutrients are recovered from organic waste products, often by flies, to produce value-added products such as protein for animal feed and lipids for biodiesel production. Currently, research and industry focus on a select few fly species for use in bioconversion that are generalists in their feeding behaviour, the black soldier fly,Hermetia illucens L., and the housefly,Musca domestica L. More investigation is needed on species of flies that are more suited to underutilised waste streams, including meat processing waste. Species of flies that breed in carrion, such as blowflies (Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (Sarcophagidae) can be used to reduce meat processing waste and produce a valuable source of protein. In this review, we propose more investigation and use of a wider range of fly species for bioconversion of organic waste. Four blowfly species are recommended for use in the bioconversion of meat processing waste or a mixture of manure waste and meat processing waste.Chrysomya chloropyga (Wiedemann) is a large mammal carcass specialist and has been found to be effective at recovering nutrients from abattoir waste within four days and producing large larvae in the process.Chrysomya putoria (Wiedemann) andChrysomya megacephala (Wiedemann) naturally breed in carrion and faeces, are associated with pit latrines and respond well under mass rearing conditions, with high egg production. These species would be recommended for a large-scale bioconversion facility that receives mixed waste streams including manure and animal remains.Lucilia sericata is known to produce antimicrobial compounds that assist in wound healing and has been frequently bred and studied and responds well to lab and mass rearing conditions. We recognise the potential obstacles to using alternative species in industrial-scale bioconversion facilities and pose future directions for research to overcome these challenges.

Microrna Regulation of Nodule Zone-Specific Gene Expression In Soybean

Microrna Regulation of Nodule Zone-Specific Gene Expression In Soybean

Lemna minor Cultivation for Treating Swine Manure and Providing Micronutrients for Animal Feed.

The potential of Lemna minor to valorise agricultural wastewater into a protein-rich feed component to meet the growing demand for animal feed protein and reduce the excess of nutrients in certain European regions was investigated. Three pilot-scale systems were monitored for nine weeks under outdoor conditions in Flanders. The systems were fed with a mixture of the liquid fraction and the biological effluent of a swine manure treatment system diluted with rainwater in order that the weekly N and P addition was equal to the N and P removal by the system. The design tested the accumulation of elements in a continuous recirculation system. Potassium, Cl, S, Ca, and Mg were abundantly available in the swine manure wastewaters and tended to accumulate, being a possible cause of concern for long-operating recirculation systems. The harvested duckweed was characterised for its mineral composition and protein content. In animal husbandry, trace elements are specifically added to animal feed as micronutrients and, thus, feedstuffs biofortified with essential trace elements can provide added value. Duckweed grown on the tested mixture of swine manure waste streams could be considered as a source of Mn, Zn, and Fe for swine feed, while it is not a source of Cu for swine feed. Moreover, it was observed that As, Cd, and Pb content were below the limits of the feed Directive 2002/32/EC in the duckweed grown on the tested medium. Overall, these results demonstrate that duckweed can effectively remove nutrients from agriculture wastewaters in a recirculated system while producing a feed source with a protein content of 35% DM.

Fertiliser effect on Swiss chard of black soldier fly larvae-frass compost made from food waste and faeces

Inadequate organic waste management can have adverse health effects and pollute the environment. If the energy and nutrients in organic waste were to be used efficiently, they could increase food security. Composting using black soldier fly (BSF) larvae can convert organic waste into two valuable products: organic fertiliser, in the form of treatment residues, and animal feed protein, in the form of larvae. To demonstrate the feasibility of using BSF treatment residues as organic fertiliser, more knowledge is needed about the effect of BSF larvae-frass compost on plant growth and performance. This study examined the effect on growth of Swiss chard of five fertiliser treatments: (1) BSF larvae-frass compost of human faeces (BSF-F); (2) BSF larvae-frass compost of food waste (BSF-FW); (3) cow manure (CM), the most commonly used organic fertiliser globally; (4) an inorganic fertiliser containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK); and (5) a negative control with no fertiliser. The results revealed that BSF larvae-frass compost of human faeces and food waste gave comparable yields to inorganic fertilisers, and significantly higher yields than the unfertilised control. The percentage increase in fresh weight of leaves in the treatments compared to the unfertilised control were 132% for BSF-FW, 115% for BSF-F, 118% for NPK and 86% for CM. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that all treatments involving fertiliser gave differences in soil nutrient concentrations. PCA also revealed a positive correlation between soil nitrate concentration and yield. Thus, using BSF larvae-frass compost as fertiliser could be a way of efficiently returning plant nutrients in faeces and organic waste to the food chain.

Resistance against Orobanche crenata in Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia) Germplasm Based on Reduced Induction of Orobanche Germination

Bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd.) is a legume well adapted to cultivation in marginal areas, being an important source of protein for animal feed in low input cropping systems. Surprisingly, it is an underutilized crop as it could be a good alternative to increase the sustainability of extensive rainfed cropping systems. In Mediterranean rainfed cropping systems, the productivity of bitter vetch is severely reduced by the parasitic weed species Orobanche crenata (Forsk). To date, few resistant bitter vetch genotypes have been identified. O. crenata infection process initiates with the recognition of germination factors exuded by roots of susceptible hosts. In this work, the interaction of a collection of bitter vetch accessions and O. crenata has been analyzed in order to discover accessions with low germination induction activity. Through a combination of field and rhizotron experiments, two bitter vetch accessions were selected showing low germination-induction activity, which resulted in less infection. In addition, in vitro germination assays revealed that the low germination activity was due to low exudation of germination factors and not due to the exudation of germination inhibitors. The selected low germination-inducers genotypes could be the basis for a new breeding program generating locally adapted alternatives with resistance to O. crenata.

Agronomic and Environmental Performance of Lemnaminor Cultivated on Agricultural Wastewater Streams—A Practical Approach

This study investigated the potential of Lemna minor to valorise agricultural wastewater in protein-rich feed material in order to meet the growing demand for animal feed protein and reduce the excess of nutrients in certain European regions. For this purpose, three pilot-scale systems were monitored for 175 days under outdoor conditions in Flanders. The systems were fed with the effluent of aquaculture (pikeperch production—PP), a mixture of diluted pig manure wastewater (PM), and a synthetic medium (SM). PM showed the highest productivity (6.1 ± 2.5 g DW m−2 d−1) and N uptake (327 ± 107 mg N m−2 d−1). PP yielded a similar productivity and both wastewaters resulted in higher productivities than SM. Furthermore, all media showed similar P uptake rates (65–70 P m−2 d−1). Finally, duckweed had a beneficial amino acid composition for humans (essential amino acid index = 1.1), broilers and pigs. This study also showed that the growing medium had more influence on the productivity of duckweed than on its amino acid composition or protein content, with the latter being only slightly affected by the different media studied. Overall, these results demonstrate that duckweed can effectively remove nutrients from agriculture wastewaters while producing quality protein.

Innovative transcriptome-based genotyping highlights environmentally responsive genes for phenology, growth and yield in a non-model grain legume.

The narrow-leafed lupin, Lupinus angustifolius L., is a grain legume crop, cultivated both as a green manure and as a source of protein for animal feed and human food production. During its domestication process, numerous agronomic traits were improved, however, only two trait-related genes were identified hitherto, both by linkage mapping. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), exploiting genomic sequencing, did not select any novel candidate gene. In the present study, an innovative method of 3'-end reduced representation transcriptomic profiling, a massive analysis of cDNA ends, has been used for genotyping of 126 L. angustifolius lines surveyed by field phenotyping. Significant genotype × environment interactions were identified for all phenology and yield traits analysed. Principal component analysis of population structure evidenced European domestication bottlenecks, visualized by clustering of breeding materials and cultivars. GWAS provided contribution towards deciphering vernalization pathway in legumes, and, apart from highlighting known domestication loci (Ku/Julius and mol), designated novel candidate genes for L. angustifolius traits. Early phenology was associated with genes from vernalization, cold-responsiveness and phosphatidylinositol signalling pathways whereas high yield with genes controlling photosynthesis performance and abiotic stress (drought or heat) tolerance. PCR-based toolbox was developed and validated to enable tracking desired alleles in marker-assisted selection. Narrow-leafed lupin was genotyped with an innovative method of transcriptome profiling and phenotyped for phenology, growth and yield traits in field. Early phenology was found associated with genes from cold-response, vernalization and phosphatidylinositol signalling pathways, whereas high yield with genes running photosystem II and drought or heat stress response. Key loci were supplied with PCR-based toolbox for marker-assisted selection.

Impacts of Killing Process on the Nutrient Content, Product Stability and In Vitro Digestibility of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Meals

The black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens) is considered a potential sustainable insect alternative source of protein for animal feed. The quality of a BSF meal is greatly influenced by the killing method and the purpose of this article is to compare the influences of different killing methods. BSFs at the 18-day-old prepupae stage were separated into six different killing methods with three replicates: 1. blending, 2. freezing, 3. CO2 treatment, 4. vacuum, 5. blanching and 6. CO2 plus blanching. After killing, BSF larvae meals were obtained by hot air oven drying and grinding. The chemical composition and in vitro digestibility calculated from sediments were not affected by the killing method, except that blending provided the worst BSF quality for all measured parameters (p < 0.05). The highest quality of BSF was obtained from the heat treatment procedures (blanching and the CO2 plus blanching methods), as they produced lower acidity after killing, total viable counts, browning reaction (enzymatic and non-enzymatic), darkness, moisture, fat acidity, protein and lipid oxidation during storage compared with other killing procedures (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the highest free amino acids in the supernatant after in vitro digestibility of BSF samples was observed with the CO2 plus blanching killing method (p < 0.05), whereas other parameters were similar to those obtained with blanching. The CO2 plus blanching method did not produce clearly different outcomes to blanching; therefore, the selection of one of these techniques over the other should depend on the regulations in each country.

Investigating the potential for a commercial fishery in the Northeast Atlantic utilizing mesopelagic species

Abstract During three cruises in the Mid Atlantic Ridge area in 2016 and 2017, we studied the biomass of mesopelagic fish and its potential as a source of protein and oil for animal feed and human consumption. We collected samples of mesopelagic species down to a depth of 600 m, studied fish behaviour, identified and quantified the species composition of the catches, analysed the chemical composition of the catch samples, and evaluated the presence of unwanted substances. Results showed that Maurolicus muelleri (Mueller’s pearlside) and Benthosema glaciale (Glacier lantern fish) were the most abundant fish species in our samples and catches containing 80% fish can be a good source of protein and marine lipids including eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n3) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n3). Unwanted substances, except for Cd and As, were present at levels far lower than the limits set by European Union regulations. However, our experiments identified challenges that may limit the efficiency of commercial operations in the Northeast Atlantic. Combined real-time optical and/or multifrequency acoustic systems will be needed to improve species identification and ensure cost-effective fishing operations. Also, selective trawls that target only fish and release unwanted species are needed to secure high-quality oils and proteins.

Renewable source of full protein for animal feeding

Existing technologies for industrial production of agricultural products lead to inefficient consumption and loss of natural resources and an increase in the environmental burden on the environment. To saturate the domestic market with high-quality foodstuffs, intensification of agricultural production is required through technological modernization of the agricultural sector of the economy and the introduction of modern resource-saving technologies. The growth of food production requires planning a mechanism for the production waste management, so this issue is very relevant for many manufacturers in connection with the tightening of environmental requirements in many countries. Several promising technologies for the entomologically poultry waste management, which provide complete protein for feeding farm animals and therefore increase the profitability of production, are discussed.

Recycling nutrients from anaerobic digestates for the cultivation of Phaeodactylum tricornutum: A feasibility study

The valorisation of Anaerobic digestion waste streams into algal biomass to produce a protein alternative to soybeans could have significant commercial and environmental value. It has the benefit of alleviating the pressure of disposal of nutrient-rich digestate that is rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and trace metals, while potentially reducing the cost of microalgae production. Currently, the use of soybean protein in animal feed has significant negative environmental issues and high carbon footprint associated with its use. This study investigates three types of Anaerobic digestion to grow Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin microalgae. The results found that the crude protein in all concentrations of cow waste and food waste digestates were found to produce a significantly higher concentration of crude protein in comparison to the F/2 control. In addition, cow waste 1% and pig waste 1% formulations were found to have favourable fatty acid profiles, which has significant health benefits in the livestock industry. There was no significant difference in the total fatty acids found in cow waste 1% and pig waste 1% digestates compared to the F/2 control, which was in the range of 243.4 to 269.4 mg/g (dry weight). The other formulations produced a significantly lower (p < .05) concentration of total fatty acids compared to the control. Cow waste 1% was found to be richer in omega-3, eicosapentaenoic acid, compared to pig waste 1%, however, no significant difference was found between the eicosapentaenoic acid, concentration of cow waste 1% and the F/2 control. Overall, in terms of highest total fatty acids and crude protein, cow waste 1% digestate was found to perform the best out of all the digestates tested, and outperformed the F/2 control in terms of crude protein. The P. tricornutum grown in digestate was also found to bioaccumulate higher levels of calcium. P. tricornutum grown in cow waste 1% digestate could offer an alternative viable locally grown protein source for the animal feed industry, with the added advantage of being rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and calcium.

FARINHA DE INSETOS NA NUTRIÇÃO DE MONOGÁSTRICOS

Visto a crescente busca por alternativas para alimentação humana e animal, a utilização de uma fonte proteica proveniente da criação de insetos em larga escala, aparece como uma perspectiva atraente atualmente. A criação de insetos, devido à natureza das espécies, apresenta algumas vantagens que reforçam ainda mais sua utilização, como alimentar-se de uma gama de subprodutos da indústria, não competir com o uso de recursos alimentares, possuir alto valor nutricional, além de, quando consumidos, atuarem no desenvolvimento da microbiota benéfica e como imuno-moduladores. Alguns estudos destacam a utilização de farinhas de diferentes insetos em substituição a farinhas de origem animal e ao farelo de soja na alimentação de animais monogástricos, que além de fornecer um perfil de aminoácidos semelhante e/ou superior à esses ingredientes convencionais, podem reduzir o custo final da ração consumidas pela espécies monogástricas de interesse zootécnico, impactando significativamente no sistema produtivo. Alguns pontos acerca a viabilidade de produção dessas farinhas na utilização como fonte de proteína na alimentação animal merece destaque, sendo assim, o presente trabalho busca reunir as aplicações e resultados recentes obtidos com a utilização de farinha de insetos na alimentação e nutrição dos animais monogástricos, seus impactos no desempenho, saúde, além da qualidade dos produtos originados.

Genome editing technology and application in soybean improvement

Soybean (Glycine max) is a legume crop with great economic value that provides rich protein and oil for human food and animal feed. In order to cope with the ever-increasing need for soybean products and the changing environment, soybean genetic improvement needs to be accelerated. In recent years, the rapid developed genome editing technologies, such as zinc finger nuclease (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated protein (CRISPR/Cas), have shown broad application prospects in gene function research and improvement of important agronomic traits in many crops, and has also brought opportunities for soybean breeding. Here we systematically reviewed recent advances in genome editing technology. We also summarized the significances, current applications, challenges and future perspectives in soybean genome editing, which could provide references for exerting the feature and advantage of this technology to better soybean improvement.

Sustainable Animal Feed Protein through the Cultivation of YARROWIA Lipolytica on Agro-Industrial Wastes and by-Products

Proteins are essential constituents of animal feeds, which comprise mainly vegetable protein (e.g., soybean meal), which is produced and transported globally. The decoupling of protein-production and livestock-growth areas results in protein deficiencies in certain parts of the world, and in significant environmental stress. Alternative, more sustainable protein feeds are necessary to meet the increasing needs, and to decrease the environmental footprint of animal products. Yeast Single Cell Proteins (SCP), produced locally using various agro-industrial by-product streams, have significant potential as alternative animal feed protein. Particularly, Yarrowia lipolytica, an oleaginous, non-pathogenic microorganism has been characterized as a “workhorse” in biotechnological studies, drawing the attention of many researchers. The present review summarizes available resources on critical issues concerning the applicability and commercialization of Yarrowia lipolytica as an environment-friendly protein source for animal feed. It discusses the sustainability of the yeast SCP production process, it presents the recent advances concerning Yarrowia lipolytica cultivation on low-cost agro-industrial by-products, and it stresses the effects on the health and welfare of productive animals due to the inclusion of Yarrowia lipolytica in their diet. The data presented in this study should facilitate relative research advancement and the commercialization of Yarrowia lipolytica’s use as an alternative protein source/supplement for animal feeds.