Waste Animal Fats Research Articles

Deep Eutectic Solvents for Purification of Waste Animal Fats and Crude Biodiesel

U ovom je radu istražena mogućnost primjene niskotemperaturnih eutektičkih otapala za ekstrakcijsku deacidifikaciju otpadnih životinjskih masti te uklanjanje glicerola i glicerida iz sirovog biodizela. Istraživanje je uključilo odabir povoljnog katalizatora te masenog omjera katalizatora, metanola i masti koji bi rezultirali najvećom konverzijom triglicerida u metilne estere masnih kiselina. Definirano je potrebno vrijeme pročišćavanja sirovog biodizela te optimalan maseni omjer otapala i sirovog biodizela. Ekstrakcijskom deacidifikacijom pomoću niskotemperaturnog eutektičkog otapala na bazi kalijeva karbonata uspješno je reducirana kiselost sirovine uz relativno mali utrošak otapala (maseni omjer otapala i masti: 0,25 : 1,00) i kratko vrijeme trajanja procesa (30 min). Kalijev hidroksid pokazao se kao učinkovitiji katalizator. Udio katalizatora u reakcijskoj smjesi utječe više na konverziju masti od udjela metanola. Udio glicerola i glicerida reduciran je ekstrakcijom pomoću niskotemperaturnog eutektičkog otapala na bazi kolin klorida na vrijednosti manje od standardom propisane vrijednosti (EN 14214:2019). Odabrano se otapalo pokazalo selektivnim zbog toga što nije došlo do redukcije udjela metilnih estera. Pri masenom omjeru otapala i biodizela 1 : 1 i 90 min trajanja ekstrakcije postignuti su najbolji rezultati. Pročišćeni biodizel također zadovoljava standard kvalitete s obzirom na udio estera, gustoću i viskoznost.

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics

Trend in enzyme immobilization on nano materials for transesterification to produce biodiesel: A review

Biodiesel is a non-toxic and very low sulfur containing, renewable and biodegradable diesel fuel substitute with low volatility and high cetane number. It is derived from fresh or waste vegetable oils and animal fats transesterified with short chain alcohol such as ethanol or methanol in the presence of a catalyst. Several new types of carriers and technologies have been adopted in the recent past to improve the ability of a catalyst in transesterification. One of the new trends is nanoparticles-based immobilization of enzyme as a catalyst. The combination of the precise physical, chemical, optical and electrical properties of nanoparticles with the specific recognition site or catalytic properties has led them to appear in a myriad of novel nanomaterial application. Enzyme immobilized on nanoparticles showed a broader working temperature and pH range and thermal stability than the native enzyme. Enhancement in the reactivity of nanocatalysts is associated with their increased surface area, greater concentrations of highly reactive edge, unusual and stabilized lattice planes. The greater activity of nanomaterial immobilized biocatalyst affords operational simplicity, low energy consumption, and greater safety, in the process of transesterification. This review article highlights the issues including the exploration of the ability of nanomaterial to immobilize biocatalyst and factors that influence the activity of biocatalysts upon immobilization.J. bio-sci. 23: 01-17, 2015

Diesel fuel blending components from mixture of waste animal fat and light cycle oil from fluid catalytic cracking

Sustainable production of renewable fuels has become an imperative goal but also remains a huge challenge faced by the chemical industry. A variety of low-value, renewable sources of carbon such as wastes and by-products must be evaluated for their potential as feedstock to achieve this goal. Hydrogenation of blends comprising waste animal fat (≤70 wt%) and low-value fluid catalytic cracking light cycle oil (≥30 wt%), with a total aromatic content of 87.2 wt%, was studied on a commercial sulfided NiMo/Al2O3 catalyst. The fuel fraction in the diesel boiling range was separated by fractional distillation from the organic liquid product obtained from the catalytic conversion of the blend of 70 wt% waste animal fat and 30 wt% light cycle oil. Diesel fuel of the best quality was obtained under the following reaction conditions: T = 615–635 K, P = 6 MPa, LHSV = 1.0 h−1, H2/feedstock ratio = 600 Nm3/m3. The presence of fat in the feedstock was found to promote the conversion of light cycle oil to a paraffinic blending component for diesel fuel. Thus, a value-added alternative fuel with high biocontent can be obtained from low-value refinery stream and waste animal fat. The resultant disposal of waste animal fat, and the use of fuel containing less fossil carbon for combustion helps reduce the emission of pollutants.

Sustainability Assessment of Biodiesel Supply Chain from Various Biomasses and Conversion Technologies

This paper develops a comprehensive sustainability assessment of producing biodiesel from five different types of feedstocks and totally 15 biomasses in Iran: (i) edible oil seeds (canola, soybean, olive, walnut, hazelnut, almond, sunflower, corn, and peanut), (ii) nonedible oil seeds (cotton and jatropha), (iii) waste cooking oil (WCO), (iv) animal fat (tallow and poultry), and (v) microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris). This assessment integrates the most significant economic, energy, environmental, and social aspects to compare and rank 15 biodiesel systems. The results show that WCO with production cost of 600$/tonbd, EUE of 2.8 and GHG emission of 0.35 ton CO2eq/tonbd is the top rank system from economic, energy and environmental perspectives, followed by tallow by having 876$/tonbd, 1.76 and 0.45 ton CO2eq/tonbd for production cost, EUE and GHG emission, respectively. Jatropha has also dominant statues socially and economic by having 7910 h/tonbd and 755$/tonbd for labor required and production cost, respectively but not suggested for Iran due to high water consumption (1053 m3/tonbd) and land use (10.9 ha/tonbd). Although algae takes up the top rank environmentally, it is not proposed because it has the highest production cost (5800$/tonbd) and very low job opportunity (65 h/tonbd). Finally, under different assessments, walnut and hazelnut have the higher ranks over the first-generation systems; however, in social aspect, cotton is in the high position.

Selection of the Most Suitable Alternative Fuel Depending on the Fuel Characteristics and Price by the Hybrid MCDM Method

In recent years, in order to increase the quality of life of people, energy usage has become very important. Researchers are constantly searching for new sources of energy due to increased energy demand. Engine tests are being conducted to investigate the feasibility of the new sources of energy such as alternative fuels. In the engine tests, engine performance, combustion characteristics and exhaust emissions are evaluated by obtaining the results. The effect of newly developed fuels on engine lifetime, safe transport and storage are also examined for fuel availability. In addition, the potential and the price of fuels are important in terms of sustainability. In these studies, laboratory environments are needed for experimental setups. It is difficult to determine the availability of the most suitable alternative fuel since numerous results are obtained in the engine tests and studies. This integrated model provides a great advantage in terms of time and cost. The physical and chemical properties of the fuel affect experimental results such as engine performance, combustion, and exhaust emission. The suggested model can be making the most efficient and eco-friendly fuel choice without the need for experimental studies by using physical and chemical properties of the fuel. It also can offer the best fuel for cost, safety and maintenance processes. In this study, animal fat biodiesel derived from waste animal fats and vegetable oil biodiesel produced from aspir-canola oils were investigated. Biodiesel fuels are mixed with diesel at 5%, 20%, and 50%, and nine different fuels prepared with three pure fuels, and six different fuel blends are compared. Before using these fuels in an experimental study, estimates are made about which fuels may be more advantageous in terms of many criteria. In the process, nine varied fuel specifications are taken as references such as calorific value, cetane number, oxygen content rate, fuel price, flash point, viscosity, lubricity, iodine number and water content. The criteria weights are determined with SWARA (Step-Wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis) from multi-criteria decision-making models, and MULTIMOORA (Multi-Objective Optimization on the basis of Ratio Analysis) is ranked according to fuels’ characteristics from the best to the worst. While theoretically, the best fuel is ultimately VOB20, VOB50 and AFB20 were selected as the second fuel and the third fuel.

Effect of emission from ethylic biodiesel of edible and non-edible vegetable oil, animal fats, waste oil and alcohol in CI engine

In previous years, unconventional fuel studies have been conducted by many researchers through their experimental work and numerical simulation. Running down of fossil fuel raised crisis of full fill demand of energy consumption in the world. The attention of researchers to investigate renewable energy sources such as biodiesel are suggested, which are less destructive for environmental. The paper is aimed to mitigate emissions parameter like NOX, smoke, particulate matter (PM) and summary of emissions (SE) from five different categories such as, edible and non-edible vegetable oils, waste animal fats, waste oil and alcohol biodiesel. Two experimental validations were conducted on a single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine at constant advanced injection timing and speed with diesel, for a Diesel-RK model. Numerical analysis shows that most effected NOX pollutant emission for soybean (edible) by 21.79%, jojoba curcas (non-edible) by 23.0%, chicken fats (animal fats) by31.2%, grease oil (waste oil) by 15.8% and butanol (alcohol) by 94.56%. The PM emission are reduced by 45.59%, 84.97%, 93.78%, 23.83%, 48.18% for soybean, microalgae, poultry fats, frying oil and pentanol respectively and also reductions in smoke emission by 93.8%, 93.43%, 92.26%, 89.14% and 79.14% for sunflower, karanja oil, fish oil, frying oil and pentanol respectively. The most effected summary of emissions (SE) are reduced by 3.91%, 15.66%, 43.37%, 3.01% and 37.65% for soybean, jojoba curcas, veal oil, grease oil and pentanol respectively; at full load and engine speed, injection timing and compression ratio were remained unchanged.

Solvent effect on the enzymatic production of biodiesel from waste animal fat

Abstract Waste animal fat is a promising feedstock to replace vegetable oil in commercial biodiesel process, however the high content of free fatty acid in waste fat makes it unfeasible to be processed with commercial base-catalytic process. Enzymatic process in supercritical fluid is a promising way to convert waste fat into biodiesel since enzyme can catalyze both esterification of free fatty acid and transesterification of triglyceride while supercritical fluid overcome mass-transfer limitation. However, the glycerol by-product needs to be separated because it might reduce the enzyme activity. Organic solvent can be used to extract the glycerol from the enzyme with destructive effect to the enzyme. Thus, the destructive effect of organic solvent on the ability of modified C.antarctica lipase B to produce biodiesel from the waste fat was investigated. And the reversibility of enzyme was tested by various ways, drowning by organic solvents, and reuse after non-solvent experiment. The activity of enzyme was considerably affected by organic solvents. The solvent-drowning test showed that the yields were similar or higher that non-solvent case. This implies that the solvent itself did not cause the permanent change in enzyme structure to decrease activity. The decrease in yield was observed in the reuse test, which is regarded to be caused by the incomplete removal of products from the first run.

Optimised Production of Biodiesel Synthesised from Waste Animal Fat

The fleshings produced during the pre-tanning process in tanneries and animal wastes generated from slaughter house are causing serious environmental concern because of improper disposal techniques. These solid wastes contain fat and proteins which can be recovered for wide variety of applications. The fats extracted from these wastes are used as feedstock for the production of biodiesel, which serves as an alternate for conventional diesel fuel because of their sustainability. The use of these animal fats ruled out the issues over the ‘Food versus Fuel’ conflict, as edible feed stocks were used in the production of biodiesel earlier. This work projects on the synthesis of biodiesel from waste animal fats by the means of methyl-based transesterification. A maximum fat recovery of 85% was achieved by the means of autoclave heat treatment method. The refining of fat was carried out by following acid degumming, where Orthophosphoric acid was mixed with the fat to remove the phospholipids as residues. Pretreatment of the extracted fat was done using glycerolysis, where the FFA % of these fats were reduced from 7% to 0.25% with a recorded efficiency of 96.4%. Alkali catalysed transesterification was carried out by investigating various operating parameters like oil/alcohol molar ratio, catalyst concentration, temperature and reaction time and optimising them. The optimised process parameters produced a maximum yield of 94% biodiesel. The fuel properties of the produced biodiesel were compared with the ordinary diesel fuel based on both ASTM D-6751 and IS 15607: 2005 standards.

Spectroscopic studies of the quality of WCO (Waste Cooking Oil) fatty acid methyl esters

Different kinds of biodiesel fuels become more and more attractive form of fuel due to their unique characteristics such as: biodegradability, replenishability, and what is more a very low level of toxicity in terms of using them as a fuel. The test on the quality of diesel fuel is becoming a very important issue mainly due to the fact that its high quality may play an important role in the process of commercialization and admitting it on the market. The most popular techniques among the wellknown are: molecular spectroscopy and molecular chromatography (especially the spectroscopy of the electron absorption and primarily the infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)).The issue presents a part of the results obtained with the use of spectroscopy of the electron absorption and in majority infrared spectroscopy FTIR selected for testing samples of the acid fats WCO (Waste Cooking Oil) types. The samples were obtained using laboratory methods from sunflower oil and additionally from waste animal fats delivered from slaughterhouses. Acid methyl esters were selected as references to present the samples. In order to facilitate the spectroscopic analysis, free glycerol, methanol, esters and methyl linolenic acid were measured

The influence of animal fat type and purification conditions on biodiesel quality

Abstract Production of biodiesel from waste animal fats has a great potential since this feedstock does not compete with the food industry and leads to the global reduction of wastes. The type of feedstock as well as the presence of impurities highly influences the quality of biodiesel. Too high concentrations of glycerol and glycerides in biodiesel negatively influence the fuel quality and can generally reduce the engine durability, so crude biodiesel needs to be purified. One alternative method of purifying biodiesel is extraction with deep eutectic solvents. Biodiesels were synthesised from five types of waste animal fats: veal and beef tallow, lard, chicken and goose fat, by means of chemical transesterification catalysed by alkali catalyst. Due to the fact that the presence of impurities negatively influences the quality of biodiesel, crude biodiesels were purified. Liquid-liquid extraction with previously prepared deep eutectic solvent choline-chloride/ethylene-glycol (molar ratio 1:2.5) was selected as the purification method. Experiments were performed at different mass ratio solvent/biodiesel in a laboratory scale batch extractor equipped with mechanical stirrer and optimal mass ratio was defined. Biodiesels were characterised and their properties were compared with the standard specification. Free glycerol from animal fats biodiesels was efficiently removed by the selected solvent.

An integrative study on biologically recovered polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and simultaneous assessment of gut microbiome in yellow mealworm

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are produced in microbes as a source of carbon and energy storage. They are biodegradable and have properties similar to synthetic plastics, which make them an interesting alternative to petroleum-based plastics. In this study, a refined method of recovering PHA from Cupriavidus necator biomass was proposed by incorporating the use of the yellow mealworm (the larval phase of the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor) as partial purification machinery, followed by washing of the fecal pellets with distilled water and sodium hydroxide. The PHA contents of the cells used in this study were 55wt% (produced from palm olein) and 60 wt% (produced from waste animal fats). The treatment of distilled water and NaOH further increased the purity of PHA to 94%. In parallel, analysis of the 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing of the mealworm gut microbiome has revealed remarkable changes in the bacterial diversity, especially between the mealworms fed with cells produced from palm olein and waste animal fats. This biological recovery of PHA from cells is an attempt to move towards a green and sustainable process with the aim of reducing the use of harmful solvents and strong chemicals during polymer purification. The results obtained show that – purities of >90%, without a reduction in the molecular weight, can be obtained through this integrative biological recovery approach. In addition, this study has successfully shown that the cells, regardless of their origins, were readily consumed by the mealworms, and there is a correlation between the feed type and the mealworm gut microbiome.

Utilization of animal fat waste as carbon source by carotenogenic yeasts – a screening study

Abstract Red yeast strains are ubiquitous microorganisms which accumulate substantial amounts of lipids and lipid-soluble metabolites. Red yeasts utilize many waste substrates of different origin. In this work red yeasts strains (Rhodotorula, Sporobolomyces, Cystofilobasidium) were used for screening of growth and metabolic activity. As a carbon source waste animal fat and its hydrolysis products were used. Hydrolysis of animal fat was tested in alkaline as well as acidic conditions. As the substrate glucose (control), glycerol, crude animal fat, acid fat hydrolyzate and hydrolysate: glucose 1:2 were used. Screening of growth and metabolic activity of red yeasts was performed by flow cytometry. Extracellular lipase production was monitored as adaptation mechanism. Carotenoids, ergosterol and ubiquinone were quantified by HPLC/PDA/MS/ESI and the biomass was evaluated gravimetrically. All tested strains utilized fat hydrolysate and produced red coloured biomass. Cultivation in media containing non-hydrolysed fat led to strain specific induction of extracellular lipase. Amount of lipid metabolites produced by individual strains was depended on glycerol content in medium. The highest increase of lipase production was observed in Cystofilobasidium macerans and Sporobolomyces shibatanus. Valorisation of animal fat can lead to production of unsaturated fatty acids, single cell oils, carotenoid pigments, sterols and enriched red yeast biomass.

Effect of supercritical carbon dioxide on the enzymatic production of biodiesel from waste animal fat using immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B variant

BackgroundWaste animal fat is a promising feedstock to replace vegetable oil that widely used in commercial biodiesel process, however the high content of free fatty acid in waste fat makes it unfeasible to be processed with commercial base-catalytic process. Enzymatic process is preferable to convert waste fat into biodiesel since enzyme can catalyze both esterification of free fatty acid and transesterification of triglyceride. However, enzymatic reaction still has some drawbacks such as lower reaction rates than base-catalyzed transesterification and the limitation of reactant concentration due to the enzyme inhibition of methanol. Supercritical CO2 is a promising reaction media for enzyme-catalyzed transesterification to overcome those drawbacks.ResultThe transesterification of waste animal fat was carried out in supercritical CO2 with varied concentration of feedstock and methanol in CO2. The CO2 to feedstock mass ratio of 10:1 showed the highest yield compared to other ratios, and the highest FAME yield obtained from waste animal fat was 78%. The methanol concentration effect was also observed with variation 12%, 14%, and 16% of methanol to feedstock ratio. The best yield was 87% obtained at the CO2 to feedstock ratio of 10: 1 and at the methanol to feedstock ratio of 14% after 6 h of reaction.ConclusionEnzymatic transesterification to produce biodiesel from waste animal fat in supercritical fluid media is a potential method for commercialization since it could enhance enzyme activity due to supercritical fluid properties to remove mass transfer limitation. The high yield of FAME when using high mass ratio of CO2 to oil showed that supercritical CO2 could increase the reaction and mass transfer rate while reducing methanol toxicity to enzyme activity. The increase of methanol concentration also increased the FAME yield because it might shift the reaction equilibrium to FAME production. This finding describes that the application of supercritical CO2 in the enzymatic reaction enables the application of simple process such as a packed-bed reactor.

Biodiesel Production Potential from Littered Edible Oil Fraction Using Directly Synthesized S-TiO2/MCM-41 Catalyst in Esterification Process via Non-Catalytic Subcritical Hydrolysis

Due to uncontrolled consumption of fossil fuel it is necessary to use alternative resources as renewable energy. Among all the available liquid fuels biodiesel has drawn attention for producing less emissions and having less aromatic contents than diesel and because it can also be obtained from inferior grade feedstocks. Since the various uses of fats and oils have increased, a significant amount of waste animal fat and used edible oil is generated every year. In this work, we produced biodiesel from littered edible oil fraction (LEOF) via hydrolysis followed by catalytic esterification. Nearly 90% free fatty acids (FFA) content was achieved at 275 °C, after 45 min during hydrolysis and linoleic acid (C18:2) was observed to be the highest component. Compared to refined soybean oil (SBO) the reaction rate was accelerated by the auto-catalytic behavior of free fatty acids (FFA) in littered edible oil fraction (LEOF). For catalytic esterification, S-TiO2/MCM-41 catalyst was directly synthesized and characterized by using XRD, SEM, NH3-TPD and Brunauer Emmett Teller (B.E.T). The parameters such as; SO4−2 content, TiO2 loading and calcination temperature were varied to get optimum free fatty acids (FFA) conversion. Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) conversion was 99.29% using 1% S-TiO2/MCM-41 catalyst at 240 °C whereas 86.18% was observed with 3.5% catalyst at 180 °C with 20 min. Thus, using S-TiO2/MCM-41 catalyst in esterification via hydrolysis would be a better option for treating low quality feedstocks.

Use of high-throughput techniques to study simultaneous production of lipid metabolites in carotenogenic yeasts grown on waste animal fat

This study focuses on the valorisation of crude glycerol and sunflower meal (SFM) from conventional biodiesel production plants for the separation of value-added co-products (antioxidant-rich extracts and protein isolate) and for enhancing biodiesel production through microbial oil synthesis. Microbial oil production was evaluated using three oleaginous yeast strains (Rhodosporidium toruloides, Lipomyces starkeyi and Cryptococcus curvatus) cultivated on crude glycerol and nutrient-rich hydrolysates derived from either whole SFM or SFM fractions that remained after separation of value-added co-products. Fed-batch bioreactor cultures with R. toruloides led to the production of 37.4 g L−1 of total dry weight with a microbial oil content of 51.3% (w w−1) when a biorefinery concept based on SFM fractionation was employed. The estimated biodiesel properties conformed with the limits set by the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751 standards. The estimated cold filter plugging point (7.3–8.6 °C) of the lipids produced by R. toruloides is closer to that of biodiesel derived from palm oil.

Testing of the fleet of the vehicles with diesel engines fed by BIOXDIESEL fuel

The paper presents results of testing of the fleet of the parcel delivery vehicles, equipped with the Diesel engines fed by biofuel BIOXDIESEL, manufactured on the way of the ethanol esterification process of the waste vegetable and animal fats, with the addition of the standard diesel fuel and pure ethanol. The comparison results of the vehicles test bed on the beginning of the testing and at the end of the testing, when vehicles were fueled with standard diesel and testing biofuel. The results of the testing at non-stationary states are also presented. The paper presents also results of the drivers evaluation of the performance of the vehicles based on the questionnaire. Presented results show that the BIOXDIESEL fuel is fully replaceable to the standard diesel fuel.

Performance and emissions of diesel engine fuelled with preheated biodiesel fuel derived from crude palm, jatropha, and waste cooking oils

Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids of palm, vegetable, and waste cooking oils and animal fat with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters. Biodiesel is not efficient in cold weather and this is biodiesel’s major problem. Viscosity has influences on the fuel flow rate and leads to poor fuel atomisation during the combustion process. The aim of this study is to determine the effects of biodiesel temperature in the range fom 40 °C and 60 °C on engine performance such as torque, brake power, brake mean effective pressure, and fuel consumption. Three types of biodiesel oil were used (crude palm oil (CPO), waste cooking oil (WCO), and jatropha oil) under biodiesel blending ratio of 5vol%. A single cylinder four-stroke engine was used and operated under different load conditions of 0% and 50% and observed emission of CO, CO2, NOx, and HC. The engine operated at 0% and 50% dynamometer load conditions and running speeds of the engine of 800 rpm, 1200 rpm, 1600 rpm, and 2000 rpm. The results of this study showed that the heating temperatures in the range from 40 °C and 60 oC in CPO10 produced the highest brake power as well as torque and BMEP. For the experimental results of exhaust emission, the preheated temperature affected the degradation of the exhaust emission. In addition, preheated biodiesel increased the pressure on the cylinder combustion chamber. It can be concluded that the biodiesel preheated blend influences the performance and emission. For CPO biodiesel, the preheated biodiesel decreased CO and NOx while the standard diesel produced the lower emission of CO2 and HC. WCO biodiesel blend produced a lower emission with increasing fuel temperature.

Experimental Investigation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Common Rail Direct InjectionEngine Using Animal Fat Biodiesel Blends

Our society is highly dependent on petroleum for its activities. However, petroleum is a finite source and causes several environmental problems such as rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. About 90% of petroleum produced is used as an energy source for transportation, heat and electricity generation, and the remaining sources used as feed stocks in the chemical industry. As demands for energy is increasing and fossil fuels are limited, research is directed towards alternate renewable fuels. Alternate fuels for compression ignition (CI) engines have become the need of the hour due to rapid depletion and predicted scarcity of conventional petroleum resources. Biodiesel is becoming a common propulsion fuel. Various countries around the world blend it to mineral diesel, usually in low percentages. Large scale biodiesel production by using low cost and abundant feedstock of waste animal fat is becoming more important. Experiments were carried out with different blends of biodiesel from animal fat mixed with mineral diesel in the concentrations of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% to examine the effect of emissions and performance of a CRDI engine. The collected data were analysed for various parameters such as, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), thermal efficiency, CO, CO2, NOX, O2 and HC emissions. Of all the animal fat biodiesel blends, the 30% blend concentrations were found to be at par with mineral diesel, regarding the performance and emission parameters of the CRDI engine. These were, however, observed to be marginally inferior for higher and lower blend concentrations.

Biofuel parameter dependence on waste fats’ fatty acids profile

Many studies have focused on biofuel development from non-food biomass. Second generation biofuels (2G) manufactured from waste/recycled greases and animal fats are one of the alternatives to the first generation (1G) plant oil-based biofuels. In this study, the 2G biofuel parameter dependence on waste fats’ fatty acids profile was examined. The methyl esters parameters included density, viscosity and cold filter plugging point (CFPP); and the biofuels used included waste cooking oil (WCO) and waste animal fat (WAF) obtained through low temperature one step trans-esterification process. Purified and dehydrated samples came from various batches around Poland. Each sample’s animal fat content profile was obtained through gas chromatography and acid value method. The fats were transesterifcated at 60°C with methanol 1:9 (mole/mole) and KOH 1% (m/m) catalyzer. The coefficients of reaction efficiency, viscosity as a function of temperature, density at 15°C and cold filter plugging point were obtained. Their cause and effect dependence on fat acid’s content was evaluated based on correlation coefficient (CC) values. The relative standard deviation (RSD) at 38% pointed to nonhomogeneous content of waste fats. The source of fats had no significant influence on the reaction efficiency, with 0.98±0.015kg biofuel per 1kg of waste fat yield. The kinetic viscosity of the biofuels’ samples conformed to the EN14214 norm only with two in thirty cases. The dependence of viscosity, density and CFPP on fat acids’ profile were confirmed only for a few of studied biofuels.