Abstract This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. (Asparagaceae), Solomon's Seal, that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of Britain and Ireland: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation. Polygonatum multiflorum is a rhizomatous, clonal perennial herb found in Britain and Ireland primarily in forests, but also in hedgerows and shaded grasslands. The native range consists of much of temperate Europe, extending into western Asia, and is typically associated with nutrient‐rich, moist to well‐drained substrates. The species is a characteristic component of semi‐natural woodland understorey flora, often co‐occurring with other shade‐tolerant species, such as Mercurialis perennis and Anemone nemorosa . The flowers of P. multiflorum are pendulous, tubular, and creamy‐white with green tips, arranged in axillary clusters along the arching stem. They are primarily pollinated by long‐tongued bees and bumblebees. The resulting dull blue berries are dispersed by birds, contributing to the plant's spread across suitable habitats. Vegetative reproduction via rhizome extension is also common, leading to more or less distinct shoot clusters. The species is relatively unpalatable to herbivores due to the presence of steroidal saponins, though it is sometimes browsed by deer and by insects such as the specialized Solomon's‐seal sawfly ( Phymatocera aterrima ). It is also susceptible to fungal infections, which cause rust diseases. Recent studies have focused on the genetic fitness of populations under habitat fragmentation, on climate change effects on the species' phenology and on the vegetative and generative reproductive strategies that determine its dispersal dynamics. Historically, Polygonatum multiflorum has been valued in herbal medicine for its purported wound‐healing and anti‐inflammatory properties. P. multiflorum is often associated with ancient woodland. While this species is currently not at risk of extinction, woodland management practices, habitat fragmentation, and climate change might cause population declines or range contraction.

Abstract To examine effects of local environmental conditions on the vegetation, measurements on the microhabitat level are highly relevant. Unlike most soil chemical variables, soil moisture is rarely considered in studies investigating the impact of local factors on plant species composition. Here, we conducted soil moisture measurements with TMS4 sensors over a two-month period in 25 deciduous forest plots in northern Germany, performed site-specific moisture calibrations and studied the quantitative effect of soil properties on the relationship between the TMS4 signal and gravimetric soil moisture. Moreover, we investigated the effect of measured microhabitat conditions (light availability, soil variables including soil moisture) on plant species richness and composition. We found that soil carbon significantly influenced the relationship between the TMS4 raw signal and gravimetric soil moisture. The number of herb layer species and ancient woodland indicators (AWI) increased with increasing soil moisture. For the herb layer, soil moisture and soil C/N ratio had an interactive effect: species richness increased more steeply with increasing soil moisture in plots with a low C/N ratio. AWI species richness was significantly higher in plots with a low C/N ratio. Herb layer species composition was shaped by two main gradients, reflecting (1) variation in C/N ratio and pH and (2) variation in soil moisture, other soil variables and light availability. Our findings indicate that soil carbon, a frequently measured variable in vegetation studies, could, with sufficiently good calibrations, be directly used to translate sensor raw signals into reliable soil moisture values for predicting plant species occurrence.

ABSTRACT The importance of increasing woodland cover in mitigating climate change is widely recognised, yet quantification of the long‐term impact of maturing woodlands on soil structure and carbon stocks remains limited. This study evaluates soil structure and carbon content across a chronosequence of UK woodlands established over the last 160 years and old‐growth woodland (250+ years old) compared to pasture sites. Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks were significantly higher in woodland soils than in pastures, with mature and ancient woodlands containing up to 88%–111% more SOC ─ primarily due to the development of an organic layer that contributed up to 42% of total carbon stocks. In contrast, differences in carbon within mineral soil layers (0–15 cm, 15–30 cm) were minimal, indicating that afforestation‐driven carbon gains are largely restricted to surface horizons. Woodland age had a large effect on carbon concentrations within water‐stable aggregates ( η 2 = 0.58, p < 0.001), with macroaggregates (> 2000 μm) exhibiting the greatest increases (Cohen's d = 1.28). Mid‐aged woodlands (31–80 years) displayed particularly even carbon distribution across aggregate size classes, while older stands showed accumulation in finer fractions (< 250 μm), suggesting progressive carbon stabilisation as forests mature. Aggregate stability, measured as mean weight diameter (MWD) from wet‐sieving analysis, was significantly higher in woodland surface soils (0–15 cm) compared to pasture ( p < 0.001), with older secondary woodlands (81–160 years) showing the greatest improvements. Critically, MWD was not a statistically significant predictor of SOC stocks or carbon concentration in mineral soil layers (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm; p > 0.05, η 2 < 0.01), confirming it as an unreliable indicator of carbon status in these systems. This study highlights the essential role of organic layer development in woodland carbon sequestration and provides detailed evidence that woodland age influences not only soil carbon quantity but also its distribution and physical protection within the soil matrix. These findings have practical implications for land management and carbon accounting practices in rewilded and afforested landscapes.

When species compete over similar resources, niche partitioning can permit ecologically similar species to coexist. Such coexistence should be a particular challenge for carrion-feeding invertebrates, with the ephemeral nature of carrion leading to intense competition over this nutrient-rich resource. Here we tested whether the carrion niche in four species of coexisting burying beetles (Nicrophorus spp.) is partitioned seasonally or by species size in seven ancient woodlands in the United Kingdom. We fail to replicate the results of previous studies in the UK that found a strict seasonal separation in the activity of competing burying beetle species. Instead, our data support the hypothesis that the niche is partitioned by species size. We present field evidence consistent with the hypothesis that smaller species are less successful at contested carcasses and confirm that sexual dimorphism in head width, a trait likely related to competitive ability, is present in several species of Nicrophorus. We discuss the considerable but as-of-yet unnoticed variation between different geographic populations of Nicrophorus spp. in how the carrion niche is partitioned.

ABSTRACT This article examines the environmental controversy around the planning and construction of high-speed rail in the UK (HS2) to analyse the changing dynamics and mediation of intra-green contention. The study situates a protracted episode of contention staged on Twitter, focused on the damage and destruction of 108 ancient woodlands by the construction of HS2, in a longer event history initiated by the first UK public consultation on high-speed rail. The article argues that platform-mediated interaction that delegitimises opponents as bad-faith actors, NIMBYs, shills and liars, also has the detrimental effect of obscuring the justifying arguments of critics of purportedly green infrastructure like high-speed rail. The article argues that it is not so much polarisation, but delegitimization that constitutes the greater risk of platform-mediated intra-green contention, an outcome that could be mitigated by discursive forums and iterative processes where trust can be built over time.

Past land-use affects woodland functioning even after complete ecosystem destruction.

Abstract Ancient woodland in the United Kingdom is a habitat of high conservation concern where continuity of forest cover has allowed a distinctive ecological community to develop. In England, ancient woodland sites are classed as ‘irreplaceable habitat’ and are protected in the planning process, but urban expansion in the 20th century has meant that over 8% of ancient woodland is now adjacent to or surrounded by urban fabric. In this context, these habitats can be threatened by impacts such as high visitor pressure, pollution and the introduction of alien species. We used historic and recent botanical records to investigate differences between the flora and floristic change (pre‐ and post‐1990) of urban and rural ancient woodlands in order to assess the impacts of urbanisation on ancient woodland flora. We collected data from 43 sites across three regions of England where urbanisation has occurred in different periods and at different rates: in north‐east Buckinghamshire the ‘new town’ of Milton Keynes grew rapidly from the last quarter of the 20th century onwards; in Warwickshire urban development occurred mainly in the mid‐20th century; in Greater London development occurred over a longer period of time, mostly before the mid‐20th century. Urban ancient woodland showed species richness that was comparable with rural ancient woodland, including richness of ancient woodland indicators, illustrating their value as sites for nature conservation. Floristic change in regional urban species pools was driven by increases in alien species, probably largely from deliberate or accidental garden escapes and municipal planting. Earlier nearby urban development was associated with greater floristic change at regional and site scales, indicating that the impacts of urbanisation take place over several decades. Practical implications: We highlight the need for improved monitoring and awareness of the spread of alien species into urban ancient woodland. Visitor management and large buffer zones may also be needed to conserve these species‐rich habitats.

Abstract Within the farmed landscape, trees outside woods (TOWs), such as hedgerows, copses and scattered trees, provide a variety of benefits for wildlife and people, but these are not well understood or recognised. Many TOWs continue to be lost from the landscape. We used butterflies as a model group and explored patterns in their abundance and species richness in relation to the extent and type of TOWs, using data from the UK's Wider Countryside Butterfly Survey. We explored farmers' views of TOWs using an online survey. In general, the predictive power of the statistical models was not high, but some clear patterns emerged. Small woodlands were positively associated with overall butterfly abundance and species richness, especially in more arable landscapes. Higher numbers of ancient trees were associated with higher butterfly species richness. Hedgerows and woody strips had a positive effect on five of seven common species studied. As woodland increased in the landscape, up to a certain level, so did the abundance of meadow brown Maniola jurtina, speckled wood Parare aegeria, ringlet Aphantopus hyperantus and comma Polygonia c‐album. More ancient woodland in the landscape was associated with more P. aegeria and A. hyperantus butterflies. Farmers viewed TOWs as having a range of benefits, including value for wildlife and the landscape, helping combat climate change, improving soil health and reducing flooding. Time, expense and long‐term commitment dominated farmer concerns around TOWs. Management knowledge and practice tended to be more consistent for hedgerows than for other types of TOWs. Most respondents indicated they would like more information on managing TOWs. Practical implication. Heterogeneous farmed landscapes rich in hedgerows, small woodlands and ancient trees were associated with more abundant and species‐rich butterfly communities than landscapes with few of these features. There was clear recognition by farmers of the benefits of TOWs for farming and the environment. Farmers should be better supported to help deliver these benefits, financially and through knowledge exchange. The protection and restoration of TOWs on farmland should be an essential part of efforts to address the biodiversity and climate crises and at the forefront of farm‐scale and landscape‐scale initiatives.

Rapid evolution through small shifts in allele frequencies at thousands of loci is a long-standing neo-Darwinian prediction but is hard to characterize in the wild. European ash tree (Fraxinus excelsior) populations have recently come under strong selection by the invasive fungal pathogen Hymenoscyphus fraxineus. Using genomic prediction models based on field trial phenotypes and 7985 loci, we show a shift in genomically estimated breeding values in an ancient woodland, between adult trees established before the epidemic started and juvenile trees established since. Using simulations, we estimate that natural selection has eliminated 31% of the juvenile population. Thus, we document a highly polygenic heritable microevolutionary adaptive change over a single generation in the wild.

Torpor is a life history strategy for conserving energy during unfavourable conditions. Hazel dormice Muscardinus avellanarius are known for prolonged winter hibernation but also employ short bouts of torpor of less than 24 hrs, independently of hibernation. In Great Britain, at the edge of the species’ range, there is marked spatial and temporal variation in short torpor among individuals and among populations, the causes and consequences of which are not well understood. We quantified variation in torpor use in the dormouse active season and identified individual and population-level correlates of torpor frequency. We analysed the data from the National Dormouse Monitoring Programme, comprising 53,953 observations of adult dormice in nest boxes on 381 sites over 25 years. Short torpor was more frequent at sites towards western Britain, at greater elevation, with more ancient woodland, and greater connectivity of broadleaf woodland. Dormice were more frequently torpid on colder and wetter days, and within colder and wetter seasons. Adult dormice observed in boxes containing young were rarely torpid, while adults alone were more frequently torpid. Lighter individuals were more frequently torpid earlier in the season (April–August) and heavier individuals later (September–October). Sites where short torpor was more frequent had lower counts of dormice and lower counts of breeding events. As a response to short and long-term variation in environmental conditions, short torpor is likely a mediator of environmental drivers of dormouse population dynamics. This is of particular relevance under climate change and at range edges, which already experience adverse environmental conditions.

Abstract A 10‐year monitoring study aimed to assess the benefit of using translocated ancient woodland soil in the development of a new woodland ground flora in Kent (SE England). New woodland (based on National Vegetation Classification [NVC] W8) was planted at two sites: Cossington Fields and a field adjacent to Great Crabbles Wood Site of Special Scientific Interest. Both sites comprised former arable farmland adjacent to existing ancient woodland. At Cossington Fields, the arable topsoil was stripped and replaced with ancient woodland topsoil. At Great Crabbles, whips were planted directly into existing topsoil and subsoil. Both new woodlands successfully developed into an NVC W8 community. At Cossington Fields, at least 16 ancient woodland indicator (AWI) ground flora species established and thrived within the 10‐year monitoring period. In contrast, no woodland ground flora species colonized the Great Crabbles area within the same period. Reasons, including poor AWI seed dispersal and a long woodland habitat development time, are presented to support a longer monitoring period (25 years plus). There remains no evidence to suggest that the loss of ancient woodland can be successfully mitigated. However, the translocation of soil at Cossington Fields has been beneficial in accelerating target habitat development.

A replicated, controlled trial in 2023 to test whether Trico® deer repellent spray is effective for protecting coppice re-growth from deer browsing found significantly fewer visible signs of browsing and significantly higher average re-growth for sprayed coppice than for an unsprayed control.

A replicated, controlled trial in 2023 to test whether Trico® deer repellent spray is effective for protecting coppice re-growth from deer browsing found significantly fewer visible signs of browsing and significantly higher average re-growth for sprayed coppice than for an unsprayed control.

ABSTRACT This study uses a recognised inventory of ancient woodland indicator plants (AWIs), to investigate the antiquity of sixty-two woodlands in south-east Northumberland, prompted by Brian Roberts’ analysis of Old-English place names between the Rivers Coquet and Wansbeck. Botanical evidence for woody and herbaceous plant species and other information concerning woodland history was gathered in fieldwork and desk-based enquiry. In a multivariate analysis the distribution of woodland indicators showed significant if not overwhelming correlation with site classification of ancient semi-natural woodlands (ASNW). Faithfulness, the close relationship of AWI species to ASNWs, is revealed together with some woodland species which were not previously on the AWI list. Some differences are found when comparing the results to ancient woodland designations. Our case study of one township shows however that use of all available categories of evidence offers more robust support that its woodlands were ancient. Woodlands in north-east England had not been previously researched in this way for evidence of ancient woodland. This study contributes information on the region’s ecology, archaeology and landscape history, providing scope for further and ongoing research. It is suggested that fieldwork using quantitative archaeological techniques should be carried out in future to provide better chronological frameworks for woodlands in south-east Northumberland.

Abstract As urban land use expands, understanding the conservation of biodiversity in urban settings becomes increasingly important. Urban areas contain a wide range of remnant natural, semi-natural and anthropogenic woodlands but the biodiversity of these woodlands is not well studied. Urban woodlands are usually constrained in size and subject to management which may not be focused on promoting biodiversity. As a habitat of critical importance, the characteristics of urban woodlands need to be better understood to maximise their biodiversity within a limited footprint in the urban landscape. We used repeat line-transect surveys and rapid woodland structure habitat assessments to investigate the habitat associations of butterflies in ten woodland patches representing a range of sizes (between 1 and 40 ha), ages and woodland characteristics in the urban habitat matrix of Milton Keynes, UK. We found that ancient woodland sites supported every species detected, but the butterfly communities of amenity and roadside woodlands had similar species richness, diversity and abundance, regardless of size. Butterfly species richness was strongly associated with both woodland area and structural complexity at a site-scale, but only with structural complexity on a transect scale. Simpson diversity showed no correlation with any variable at the site scale, but strong correlation with structural complexity on transects. Abundance only correlated with area at the site scale. Our results suggest that management techniques that introduce structural complexity within urban woodlands may be an effective way to support butterfly richness and diversity in contexts where woodland areas cannot be increased.

Restoring ecosystems is an imperative for addressing biodiversity loss and climate change, and achieving the targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. One form of restoration, rewilding, may have particular promise but may also be precluded by requirements for other forms of land use now or in the future. This opportunity space is critical but challenging to assess. We explored the potential area available for rewilding in Great Britain until the year 2080 with a multisectoral land-use model with several distinct climatic and socioeconomic scenarios. By 2080, areas from 5000 to 7000km2 were either unmanaged or managed in ways that could be consistent with rewilding across scenarios without conflicting with the provision of ecosystem services. Beyond these areas, another 24,000-42,000km2 of extensive upland management could provide additional areas for rewilding if current patterns of implementation hold in the future. None of these areas, however, coincided reliably with ecosystems of priority for conservation: peatlands, ancient woodlands, or wetlands. Repeatedly, these ecosystems were found to be vulnerable to conversion. Our results are not based on an assumption of support for or benefits from rewilding and do not account for disadvantages, such as potential losses of cultural landscapes or traditional forms of management, that were beyond the modeled ecosystem services. Nevertheless, potential areas for rewilding emerge in a variety of ways, from intensification elsewhere having a substantial but inadvertent land-sparing effect, popular demand for environmental restoration, or a desire for exclusive recreation among the wealthy elite. Our findings therefore imply substantial opportunities for rewilding in the United Kingdom but also a need for interventions to shape the nature and extent of that rewilding to maintain priority conservation areas and societal objectives.

ABSTRACT Globally, terrestrial invertebrates are in decline, in part due to habitat fragmentation. Footpaths provide nature-based recreation to the public but can present small-scale spatially continuous changes in forest dynamics. However, their effects on terrestrial invertebrate communities are unknown. Pitfall trapping was undertaken to identify whether terrestrial invertebrate communities were disrupted by a popular recreational footpath in Blean Woods, an ancient UK woodland. The study identified 720 invertebrates across 36 taxa from 20 footpath edge and forest interior traps. It was found that footpaths did not significantly affect terrestrial invertebrate communities. There was no difference in the taxonomic abundance, richness, and diversity; invertebrate trait abundance and richness; or invertebrate community composition between the footpath edge and woodland interior traps. Thus, footpaths in Blean Woods do not disturb the terrestrial invertebrate community, and therefore present a sustainable mechanism for facilitating public engagement with conservation in a nationally important protected ancient woodland.

‘TreeLand’, a neglected pier attraction in northern England, has become home to some of the country’s last remaining trees. On a day trip with her children, Ama’s encounter with the verdant forest prompts her to question the stories she has always been told about trees being a threat. In this alternate near future, technological solutionism, the drive for development and resistance to lifestyle change has enabled the spread of carbon capture technology and the demonization and widespread replacement of real trees. The roots of this fictional societal response are shown to go back through generations and are perhaps not as far removed from today’s England – where ancient woodlands are under threat and plastic lawns proliferate – as we might want to believe. The accompanying poetics, ‘Some notes on losing trees’, explores how stories can shape our understanding of, and interactions with, the natural world. The author reflects on how their imaginative world in childhood was forested through fiction when many native woodlands and trees had already been destroyed. Together, the story and poetics, invite consideration of how we respond as individuals, and as a society, when loss of nature is raw and immediate, when it is remote in time or space, or when it is just another part of the barely noticed everyday.

Abstract There is increasing concern into the decline of insect populations, with corresponding calls for conservation action aimed towards threatened species in particular. However, there is a distinct paucity of knowledge surrounding habitat requirements, microhabitat selection and conservation actions that may be undertaken for the vast majority of invertebrate species.Carabus intricatus(Coleoptera: Carabidae) Linnaeus, 1761 is a threatened ancient woodland specialist in the United Kingdom with a highly restricted distribution and is listed as a section 41 species of principal importance in England. Despite this, no empirical systematic evidence exists for even basic habitat requirements.Here, we used a patch‐occupancy modelling framework to determine occupancy and detection parameters forC.intricatusand a sympatric generalist species,C.problematicus, which is a potential competitor.Our models showed that decayed deadwood availability and leaf litter covering (an indicator of the availability of mature broadleaved trees) leads to higher occupancy ofC.intricatus, whereas decayed dead wood availability and slug abundance are primary determinants of overall abundance. Additionally, detection models showed that higher humidity substantially increased activity ofC.intricatus.ForC.problematicus, ground moss coverage and overall deadwood volume most strongly influenced occupancy and abundance, whereas there were no humidity related influences on activity.The results support our general predictions about the specialist–generalist nature of the two species in the United Kingdom and indicate that key characteristics of old‐growth temperate rain forests, particularly the availability of deadwood and high humidity, are central to the conservation of these charismatic carabids.

Bracklinn Falls is situated in a gorge surrounded by ancient woodland within the Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park. The park authority required a replacement footbridge to cross the gorge and to provide views of the falls. However, access for construction plant and materials was extremely difficult, with the sole access by way of a steep and sharp-cornered path. The construction and access constraints drove the development of a new modular system and governed the structural and aesthetic design for the new footbridge. The resulting structure consists of perforated panels, formed from single sheets of weathering steel folded into a z-shape. These panels were bolted to cross-frames and assembled to create a half-through beam that spans 21.4 m. The scheme achieved an A+ rating under the ‘structural carbon for bridges’ (SCORBs) system (Archer and Green, 2021). The structure was assembled bay by bay and push launched along a set of temporary rails, then jacked onto the permanent bearings. By using a folding process, the modular system minimised welding and hence fabrication time. The system is in the process of being developed for repeated use at other locations, and forms an attractive ‘flat-packed’ modular alternative for difficult to access locations.