Due to script deterioration, intricate ligatures, uncommon characters, and a lack of language resources, digitising and translating ancient Greek scripts is extremely difficult. Although they present encouraging alternatives, contemporary OCR and neural translation methods are still not optimal for processing old documents. Ten recent works on OCR enhancements, multilingual character recognition, semantic-aware translation, hybrid human-AI translation models, and integrated OCR-to-translation pipelines are examined in this study. Results show that transformer translation models in conjunction with deep learning-based OCR produce the best accuracy; however, domain adaption and error propagation continue to be significant problems. Although much progress has been made, the survey indicates that in order to attain dependable end-to-end performance, specialised OCR models, richer tokenization, and context aware translation frameworks are needed for ancient Greek scripts.

Ancient Greek society organized sports events to honor leaders and heroes. With the development of the belief structure, local events became more comprehensive. There were mythological gods in ancient Greek society that were connected to the belief system. However, festivals were organized only in honor of the great gods. As in civilizations throughout human history, ceremonies and festivals were organized in ancient Greek civilization to honor gods. The most important of the ceremonies organized for Zeus, one of the important gods of ancient Greek society, were the Olympic Games. Although the sports category was few when sports competitions in ancient Greek society began to be organized, new games were added in later periods. The most important of these games were wrestling competitions. Citizens who participated in the Olympic Games made superhuman efforts to honor God Zeus. As the popularity of the Olympic Games, which were initially held locally, increased, people came to compete, especially in wrestling. This study aims to explain the wrestling competitions in the Olympic Games organized in the name of God Zeus in the Ancient Greek and Hellenistic periods and to provide information about the wrestlers who managed to become champions in these competitions.

The complex historical phenomenon known as Greek colonization refers to the strategic establishment of new settlements (colonies) from the 8th to the early fourth century BCE. Unlike earlier migrations, this process was planned and driven by the need to expand trade, access resources, and develop economic as well as political networks. Corinth, a prominent commercial center in southern Greece, constitutes a prominent example for initiating colonization. By founding colonies, Corinth established a safe and continuous route for moving goods along the coasts of western mainland Greece and the Adriatic. Amvrakia was one of Corinth's principal colonies along this route in northwestern Greece. Founded in the seventh century BCE, Amvrakia was characterized by a strong dependence on its metropolis (Corinth). Here, we aim to investigate the genetic relationships between the Corinthian metropolis and the Amvrakia colony, the contribution of the local population to the founding genetic pool, as well as the demography of Amvrakia in subsequent periods. During its foundation in the Archaic period, Amvrakia appears to have been shaped by genetic influences from a single source. This source migrated from the Corinth territory, represented by the Archaic Tenea population and is supported via an Identity By Descent (IBD) analysis. A direct ancestry from Late Bronze Age (LBA) Greece, including a local LBA population represented by the Ammotopos site located in close proximity to Amvrakia, was not inferred despite conducting a plethora of independent population genomics analyses. During the subsequent Classical and Hellenistic periods, the population of Amvrakia appears to have only slightly differentiated and evidence of genetic continuity over time is observed. The migration of Corinthians to Amvrakia was the major contributor to the initial genetic pool of the colony, indicating that the Corinthian colonization included both genetic and cultural transmission between the metropolis and its colony.

Purpose: based on an analysis of scientific sources, to investigate the depiction of martial artists in ancient sculpture from the Archaic period to the late Classical period. Materials and methods. The following methods were used to solve the research tasks: historical and cultural – to study changes in the ways of depicting martial arts in different periods; comparative analysis – to identify common features and differences in the depiction of athletes; iconographic analysis – to analyze the symbolism and images in sculptures related to sports, specifically wrestling, and to identify mythological, religious, or allegorical meanings; formal analysis – to study the artistic features of sculptures (composition, dynamics, technical techniques). Results: the article examines the evolution of the depiction of martial arts in ancient Greek sculpture, from the Archaic period to the Hellenistic era. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the plasticity and dynamics of images of martial artists, as well as their symbolic meaning. It is determined that the development of sculptural forms is closely related to the philosophical and aesthetic views of ancient society. The Olympic Games are an important stimulus for the creation of statues of victorious athletes, who become symbols of physical and moral perfection. Different periods of sculpture development, such as Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic, are characterized by unique stylistic approaches to depicting movement and proportions of the human body. From the static poses of the archaic period to the complex compositions of Hellenism, sculpture demonstrates progress in understanding and conveying the physical aspects of the human figure. In particular, the work analyzes the sculptures of outstanding masters such as Myron and Polykleitos, their contributions to the creation of canons of beauty and proportion. In addition, the influence of Roman copies on the preservation of ancient Greek art ideas is considered. In conclusion, the article provides valuable insights into the evolution of martial arts in sculpture as a manifestation of the cultural and aesthetic development of ancient Greek civilization. Conclusions. As a result of studying the evolution of the depiction of athletes in ancient Greek sculpture, it was established that the images not only reflected physical perfection but also served as symbols of the cultural ideals of ancient society. Sculptures of Olympians from the Archaic period to Hellenism demonstrate a gradual improvement in techniques and stylistic devices that emphasize the aesthetic and philosophical aspects of wrestling. An interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of sculptures, in particular the integration of archaeological data and historical documents, provides a deeper understanding of the context in which these works were created and their significance in the culture of Ancient Greece. The study of archaeological finds and the history of sport helps to reveal the connection between competitive activity and art, emphasizing the importance of martial arts as a cultural phenomenon.

Cambridge <i>CI in Ancient Languages Teaching Conference</i> explores new directions in teaching Ancient Greek and Latin

ABSTRACT If Plato had written a Socratic dialogue about athletics, it would be a foundational text. The absence of such a text does not imply that Classical Greece had no philosophy of sport. In fact, Plato and Aristotle both had much to say about the social and educational value of sport, and many of their ideas are brilliantly presented in a Roman-era dialogue by Lucian called Anacharsis. The questions this dialogue poses are relevant even today: What is the purpose of sport? Do we take it too seriously? Does sport build character? Is competition healthy? How does sport benefit athletes, spectators, and communities? This article presents Lucian’s Anacharsis as a Socratic dialogue that teaches us to engage in philosophical questioning about sport. The text is interpreted in light of ancient athletic practices and enduring philosophical concepts such as gymnastikē (exercise), ponos (exertion), agōn (competition), aretē (excellence), kalon (beauty), and eudaimonia (happiness). The goal is to sketch an ancient Greek approach to the philosophy of sport that sheds light on foundational concepts and adds perspective to enduring issues.

Decoding life: A detailed examination of program collection.

AimThe TACHIS study (from the ancient Greek adjective "tachýs" meaning rapid) aimed to evaluate eptinezumab effectiveness and tolerability in routine clinical practice, integrating patient-reported outcomes and use of International Headache Society (IHS)-endorsed categories of migraine control by treatment.BackgroundEptinezumab is the only intravenous anti-calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) monoclonal antibody (mAb) approved for migraine prevention. While its efficacy has been demonstrated in RCTs, real-world evidence in patients with prior preventive treatment failures is still limited.MethodsTACHIS is a prospective, multicenter, observational study conducted in Italy. Adults with episodic or chronic migraine initiating eptinezumab were followed for 24 weeks. Primary outcomes included change from baseline in monthly migraine days (MMDs) and ≥50% responder rate. Secondary outcomes included changes from baseline in acute medication use, Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS) and Headache Impact Test-6 (HIT-6) and IHS-defined residual burden categories. Logistic regression identified factors of response status.ResultsA total of 128 patients were included (82% female; 82% chronic migraine). MMDs decreased overall by 5.7 days (95% CI: -7.2 to -4.3) at week 12 and 6.9 (95% CI: -8.5 to -5.2) at week 24 (p < 0.001). A ≥ 50% response was achieved in 43.8% and 48.2% of patients at weeks 12 and 24, respectively. Over 40% of patients achieved optimal or modest migraine control. CGRP targeted therapy-naïve patients experienced significant greater benefit, though non-naïve patients also improved. Female sex and chronic migraine diagnosis were independently associated with response at 12 weeks. Adverse events were infrequent (4.7%) and mild, with no discontinuations due to safety concerns.ConclusionsEptinezumab demonstrated effectiveness and tolerability in a real-world population of patients with migraine and prior preventive treatment failures. The integration of migraine control metrics provides a comprehensive evaluation of therapeutic impact and supports eptinezumab use in routine care.Trial RegistrationThe TACHIS study was preregistered on clinicaltrial.gov, NCT06409845.

This essay discusses the handwritten commonplace book of the Hungarian Calvinist intellectual Albert Szenci Molnar (1574–1634), who modelled his notebook on the method of Johann Benz, professor in Strassburg. Adapting his teacher’s system of subject headings, Szenci Molnar focused his attention more and more on matters that he personally considered to be important, such as Hungarian humanism and Calvinist communion theology. The main part of the essay shows how the commonplace-collection was used and augmented by its second owner and scribe, Ferenc Papai Pariz (1649–1716), son of the court preacher of the Prince of Transylvania. Papai, who, after graduating in medicine at Basel, served as Professor of Ancient Greek in Nagyenyed (Aiud, Romania), and became famous for publishing an updated version of Szenci Molnar’s Latin-Hungarian dictionary. He carried the notebook with him during his Western European study trips. Although the materials gathered by him under the commonplace headings point towards less autonomous choices and interests, the entries can be linked to relevant fields, including phraseology, lexicography, bibliography and historia litteraria, medicine, medical botany, and chemical recipes. The material analysis of the document suggests that Papai Pariz not only bound additional leaves to the manuscript, but he also reconstructed its damaged first section. Through his work, Papai Pariz preserved and partially (re)created, one of the most important ego-documents of early Hungarian literature.

No abstract.

Since the era of the ancient Greeks to date, many of the issues that dominate discourses on historiography border on what constitutes account accuracy and what appropriate approaches should be adopted for constructing a historical account. In the 5th century B.C. Athens, Thucydides was a historian who openly criticised his predecessors (especially Herodotus) on the basis of these historians‘ methods of or approaches to historical writing and the inaccuracies of their historical accounts. There is no doubt that certain approaches, such as the eyewitness method of inquiry, are deemed a guarantee of account accuracy. Nonetheless, these approaches cannot straightaway render an account accurate. It is on this basis that the article takes a critical look at the methods of these early Greek logographers (writers of ethnographic and anthropological treatises) and historians, such as Herodotus, to determine the validity or otherwise of Thucydides‘ critique against the predecessors, especially Herodotus. The paper argues that whether standardised and defined historiographical methods, as in the Thucydidean eyewitness approach, or any other methods of historiography, the predecessors of Thucydides were not obliged to follow a particular method or technique of writing. Moreover, since the predecessors‘ methods achieved the purpose of documenting people‘s accounts, culture, and other events for posterity, and irrespective of the criticisms against the early Greek historians‘ methods, their historiographical approaches served as a foundation for subsequent historians, including Thucydides.

This artwork presents the Hippocratic Oath written in ancient Greek as a calligram forming the Rod of Asclepius. By visually entwining text and symbol, the piece reflects on the intertwined nature of language, ethics, and healing in the medical profession, inviting viewers to contemplate the responsibilities that accompany the physician’s role.

This paper discusses well-known French thinker Pierre Hadot’s understanding of ancient Greek philosophy as a foundational model for Western philosophy. As the classical Platonic concept of Philosophia, philosophy in Greek antiquity was the love of wisdom, or a way of life aimed at cultivating oneself through spiritual exercises in search of wisdom, that is, the authenticity of human existence. Ancient Greek philosophers, therefore, functioned as mediators between wisdom and humans. From there, Hadot, as a true philosopher and a philosophical doxographer, opened a new perspective on studying the history of Western philosophy as the transformations of foundational models of ancient Greek philosophy and philosophers. Though interrupted for centuries, this long tradition has continued its influence across the Roman period, the Middle Ages, and modern times.

In Ancient Greek, verbal first compound members in -εσι- derive regularly from verbs with aorists in -εσ- (e.g., ἐτέλεσα ⇒ τελεσι-). From this context, the sequence -εσι- is reanalyzed as a linking element and extended to verbs without an aorist in -εσ- (e.g., πηγεσι- vs. aor. ἔπηξα). Previous analyses of this analogical extension have proved empirically inadequate. I reconstruct a process, active in Homeric Greek and parallel to the deverbative formation of verbal second members in -ής (Meissner 2006:186–96), which produces verbal first members in -εσι- by analogy with the compositional forms of s-stems (-τειχής : τειχεσι- :: -τελής : τελεσι-). The process starts with denominative verbs from neuter s-stems, which also produce second members in -ής. As these are reanalyzed as deverbative, a verbal first member in -εσι- is also created and specialized for transitive meanings. The new derivational rule spreads according to strictly defined patterns of proportional analogy to verbs without a connection to s-stems, but with verbal second members in -ής. Once the new subclass of τερψίμβροτος compounds in -εσι- is created, it patterns with the class of φερέοικος compounds in -ε- and provides the -ε- verbal first members with an -εσι- counterpart. While the analogical process ceases to be productive already in Homer, compounds in -εσι- remain in the lexicon of poetry and onomastics as archaisms.

Ancient Greek accentuation has been notoriously difficult to categorize comprehensively. We set out a new model which we believe is the first fully comprehensive account that formally treats nominal accentuation as approximations of recessive accentuation. This is done using Direct OT, according to which morphemes are represented by the constraints they violate.

ABSTRACT Lability is defined as the possibility of a verb to enter a valency alternation without undergoing any change in its form. Labile verbs were common in ancient Indo‐European languages, including Hittite, which mostly features anticausative lability, with reflexive and reciprocal lability being less prominent. In Hittite, anticausative lability competes with the active versus middle voice alternation and predominantly affects active verbs. The Hittite data are important for a historical comparative perspective: a closer investigation suggests that lability is a late phenomenon, mostly occurring in New Hittite texts. The development of lability over time parallels similar trends observed in Latin and Ancient Greek and casts doubt on the reconstructability of lability in Proto‐Indo‐European.

This article analyzes the historical development of rural and urban settlements in the Middle Syr Darya basin during antiquity and the early Middle Ages on the basis of written and archaeological sources. The study applies a comparative and critical approach to data derived from ancient Greek and Roman authors, Chinese chronicles, and Arabic and Persian geographical works. Particular attention is paid to the hydronym Syr Darya, its various historical names recorded in different sources, their etymology, and related toponymic features. The article also examines the formation of settlements in historical regions such as Chach, Ustrushana, Otrar, Isfijab, and the Mirzachul area, emphasizing the interactions between sedentary agricultural communities and nomadic pastoral populations. The research findings contribute to a more precise understanding of the historical geography of the Middle Syr Darya basin and are significant for interpreting the ethno-cultural processes of the region.

This paper examines how ancient and Byzantine scholars may have conceptualised a “dialectal” lexicon of Greek, with particular attention to the problem of linguistic normativity. It offers a comparative discussion of two markedly different sources: Gregory of Corinth’s Περὶ Αἰολίδος and the anonymous lexicographical compilation Γλῶσσαι κατὰ πόλεις (Urb. Gr. 157). Both works seek to illustrate dialectal variation primarily through lexical material, yet they do so within distinct scholarly frameworks and with differing assumptions about linguistic correctness. The analysis draws on criteria developed in modern Ancient Greek dialectology (notably by García Ramón) in order to assess how far the lexical items presented in these sources can be regarded as genuinely dialect specific. Given the secondary nature of the evidence, these criteria cannot be applied mechanically; rather, they serve as a heuristic tool for evaluating the internal logic and reliability of the lexicographical traditions under consideration. Particular attention is paid to the role of literary language, poetic diction, and interdialectal influence in shaping what ancient scholars classified as “dialectal”. The study shows that Gregory of Corinth operates with an implicit normative baseline, ultimately rooted in Attic and the learned tradition, against which other dialects are evaluated, whereas the Γλῶσσαι κατὰ πόλεις lack any explicit reference to a standard variety and instead reflect classificatory practices derived largely from literary authority. In both cases, dialectal normativity emerges as prescriptive and scholarly rather than descriptive of vernacular usage. The findings underline the difficulty of defining a “dialectal” lexicon for Ancient Greek and suggest that modern lexicographical approaches must take greater account of the literary, chronological, and scholarly filters through which dialectal material has been transmitted.

The tragic is a fundamental category in aesthetics, reflecting the dialectical conflict between freedom and necessity, between the beautiful and the ugly in the processes of social and individual development. This article analyzes the historical formation and development of the concept of the tragic from ancient Greek aesthetics (Aristotle), through German Romantic aesthetics (Hegel, Nietzsche), to Marxist-Leninist aesthetics and its application in the modern Vietnamese context. Employing historical-logical analysis and comparative methods, the study elucidates the essence of the tragic as a profoundly humanistic aesthetic phenomenon that not only evokes sorrow but also forges the will to struggle. The findings demonstrate that the tragic serves not only as a tool for cognizing reality but also as a driving force for social progress. In the era of globalization, the application of the tragic in Vietnamese art contributes to cultivating critical and humanistic consciousness, enabling individuals to confront contemporary contradictions such as social inequality and environmental crises. The research proposes directions for developing aesthetic theory on the tragic in the context of digital culture, aiming to enhance its educational and aesthetic value.

The subject of the study is the multifaceted and long-popular historiographical theme of comparing the political structure of the Novgorod Republic with that of the ancient Greek polis and the Northern Italian city-state during the Middle Ages. Despite the frequent use of both Italian and ancient Greek analogies in the study of Novgorod's political system, a comprehensive and in-depth comparison utilizing extensive source and historiographical bases has yet to be conducted. The article pays special attention to analyzing the evolution of political regimes in both the ancient Greek polis and the medieval city-states of Italy and Northwestern Rus. The political structure, examined not in a static but in an ever-changing form, allows for unexpected and non-obvious conclusions. The method of broad historical comparison used in this work, not with one state in a randomly selected era, but rather with a multitude of polities over a broad historical interval, allows for a new understanding of the structure of pre-industrial society in general and the Novgorod Republic in particular. The research reveals that all the key features of the political system of the Novgorod Republic had analogies in similar states of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Novgorod shares several key characteristics with the ancient Greek polis. Firstly, the very notion of a state as a collective of citizens possessing political rights and forming an army. Secondly, the type of political power exercised by the civic collective: in both Novgorod and the ancient Greek polis, governance was conducted directly by the civic collective through the veche or ekklesia. An essential feature that unites Novgorod and the Italian city-states is the urban nature of the polity. In both cases, power belonged to the urban citizens, while the rural population possessed no political rights. All of this allows for a new perspective on the history of the Novgorod Republic.