Gaze Analysis Research Articles

Shot deception in basketball: Gaze and anticipation strategy in defence.

Anticipation of teammates and opponents is a critical factor in many sports played in interactive environments. Deceptive actions are used in sports such as basketball to counteract anticipation of an opponent. In this study, we investigated the effects of shot deception on the players' anticipation behaviour in basketball. Thirty one basketball players (15 expert, 16 novice) watched life-sized videos of basketball players performing real shots or shot fakes aimed at the basket. Four different shot outcomes were presented in the video stimuli: a head fake, a ball fake, a high shot fake, and a genuine shot. The videos were temporally occluded at three different time points (-160ms, -80ms, 0ms to ball release) during a shooting motion. The participants had to perform a basketball-related response action to either shots or shot fakes. Response accuracy, response time, and decision confidence were recorded along with gaze behaviour. Anticipation accuracy was reduced at later occlusion points for fake shooting actions. For expert athletes, this effect occurred at later occlusion points compared to novices. The gaze analysis of successful and unsuccessful shot anticipations revealed more gaze fixations towards the hip and legs in successful anticipations, whereas more fixations towards the ball and the head were found in shots unsuccessfully anticipated. It is proposed that hip and leg regions may contain causal information concerning the vertical trajectory of the shooter and identifying this information may be important for perceiving genuine and deceptive shots in basketball.

Gaze Behaviors of Neurosurgeon in Performing Gross Movements under Microscope

Frequent intermittent bleeding control and suction are often necessary during microneurosurgical procedures. We compared the visual searching strategy that guides these types of gross hand movements between expert surgeons and neurosurgical residents. A total of 70 trials of a microsurgical task consisting of moving a cotton ball with bipolar forceps and a suction instrument under the microscope were recorded. Based on surgical videos, we extracted total task time, boarding time, gaze-tool time gap, number of fixations during the boarding time, and target-locked fixation duration. A comparison of these measures between experts and resident surgeons were performed. No significant difference was found for total task time, boarding time, and number of fixations during the boarding time between the 2 groups of surgeons. However, we found significant differences in the measure of gaze-tool time gap (P < 0.001, partial η2= 0.54) and the target-locked fixation (P < 0.001, partial η2= 0.24). Specifically, expert microsurgeons' eyes move to the target board earlier before their tools in hands move (1.01 ± 0.30 seconds) compared with resident microsurgeons (0.44 ± 0.17 seconds). The target-locked fixation duration was also longer among experts comparing to residents (experts: 1.16 ± 0.82 seconds, residents: 0.40 ± 0.30 seconds). Task time analysis for this basic microsurgical task is not sufficient to evaluate participants' level of expertise. Gaze behavior analysis helps to reveal hidden differences between experts and residents. This research provides more evidence that supports the use of gaze analysis for assessing surgeons' skills in microsurgery.

Sportswomen under the Chinese male gaze: A feminist critical discourse analysis

ABSTRACT This article offers a timely, critical analysis of the male gaze upon sportswomen in male Chinese fans’ consumption of sporting megaevents. We use the most popular Chinese-language sports fandom platform, Hupu, as the data repository and scrutinise the threads of male Hupu users’ postings about two elite sportswomen at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics as the case studies. Drawing on feminist critical discourse analysis (FCDA), we elucidate the discursive strategies that male Chinese fans adopt to sexualise sportswomen and trivialise their accomplishments. The research findings showcase how China’s sports fandom has evolved as a masculine terrain, where men’s visions of asymmetrical gender power relations are discursively negotiated and rationalised.

MultiSoma: Motor and Gaze Analysis on Distributed Embodiment With Synchronized Behavior and Perception

Human behavior and perception are optimized for a single body. Yet, the human brain has plasticity, which allows us to extend our body schema. By utilizing technology like robotics or virtual reality (VR), we can modify our body parts or even add a new body to our own while retaining control over these parts. However, the update of body cognition when controlling multiple bodies has not been well examined. In this study, we explore the task performance and body cognition of humans when they have multiple full bodies as an extended embodiment. Our experimental system allows a participant to control up to four bodies at the same time and perceive sensory information from them. The participant experiences synchronizing behavior and vision perception in a virtual environment. We set up three tasks for multiple bodies and evaluated the cognition of these bodies with their gazing information, task performances, and subjective ratings. We found that humans can have the sense of body ownership and agency for each body when controlling multiple bodies simultaneously. Furthermore, it was observed that people manipulate multiple bodies by actively switching their attention in a static environment and passively switching their attention in a dynamic environment. Distributed embodiment has the potential to extend human behavior in cooperative work, parallel work, group behavior, and so on.

Gaze behaviour: A window into distinct cognitive processes revealed by the Tower of London test

The analysis of gaze behaviour during complex tasks provides a promising non-invasive method to examine how specific eye movement patterns relate to various aspects of cognition and action. Notably, the association between aspects of gaze behaviour and subsequent goal-directed action during high-level visuospatial problem solving remains elusive. Therefore, the current study comprehensively examined gaze behaviour using traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses in healthy adults (N = 27) while they performed the Freiburg version of the Tower of London task. Results demonstrated that both gaze analyses provided crucial temporal and spatial information related to planning, solution elaboration and execution. Specifically, gaze biases toward task-relevant areas (i.e., the work space) and an increase in gaze complexity (i.e., gaze transition entropy) during optimal performance reflected changes in cognitive demands as task difficulty increased. A comparison between optimal and non-optimal performance revealed sub-optimal gaze patterns that occurred in the early stages of planning, which were taken to reflect poor information extraction from the task environment and impaired maintenance of information in visuospatial working memory. Gaze behaviour during movement execution indicated an increased need to extract and process information from the goal space. Consequently, movement execution time increased in order to reverse erroneous movements and re-sequence the problem solution. Taken together, the traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses applied in the present study provide a promising approach to identify eye movement patterns that support neurocognitive performance on tasks relying on visuospatial planning and problem solving.

Development of a Tourist Information Search Support System that Reflects Interests Based on User's Gaze

In 2014, Tobii Tech and Eye Tribe released the first inexpensive non-contact eye tracking device, and eye tracking technology has been attracting more and more attention. It has long been said that gaze information can be used to infer a person's interests and attention, and the analysis of gaze position by eye tracking technology is also used for Search Engine Optimization (SEO). In addition, with the spread of information and communication technology, the Internet has become the most used media for "obtaining information on hobbies and entertainment," surpassing books, magazines, and television for all age groups except those in their 60s in Japan, The majority of information gathering has shifted to web browsing. As a result, the information gap between those who can use the Internet to collect information and those who cannot use it well, so-called digital divide, has become one of the social problems. Based on these background, we attempted to develop an interaction system that presents search keyword to get related information by using the user's eyes while browsing the web. Based on analysis of user's gaze and accumulation of web pages viewed by each user, this system can provide search keywords that reflect a user's interest, such as Tourism information or history information. We believe that this system can support users' web browsing by assisting them in gathering information on sightseeing and travel, presenting them with unexpected facilities that they did not know about, and making it easy for them to obtain a variety of related information.

Analysis of Driver Gaze and Attention to Traffic Signs

A driver’s actions and intent can be factors in enabling advance driver assistance systems (ADASs) to assist drivers and avoid accidents. A driver’s gaze can provide insight into the driver’s intent or awareness of situations. Knowing that a driver gazed at a traffic sign or missed a traffic could provide indications of whether the driver is alert to impending changes in the driving environment, such as curves and stop signs. For ADASs to determine the importance of a driver seeing or missing a sign, it is important to understand the driving environment and situation. A first step is to understand what signs drivers do see or miss while driving. This contribution presents the results of analyzing driving sequences to assess traffic signs that drivers may or may not have gazed upon. The results suggest that drivers may miss 20% of traffic signs though the percentage varies depending on the type of sign. The analysis uses image sequences of the driving environment and gazes data captured during driving. The methods used in our analysis included determining whether a driver’s gaze has fallen on the image of a traffic sign or not and subsequently determining signs missed during driving. The methods presented can be useful in other scenarios involving the analysis of driver gaze and have implications for the design of future ADASs and for understanding of driver gaze and awareness.

The role of gaze in meaning negotiation episodes in video synchronous computer-mediated interactions

Abstract The outbreak of COVID-19 led to the replacement of many traditional classroom teaching and learning activities with online interactions through synchronous audio or video conferencing tools. Technically, the key difference between audio and video conferencing is the latter’s use of a webcam. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the webcam’s role in video synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC). Negotiation for meaning episodes, in which interlocutors try to resolve non-understanding through verbal interaction, were selected for analysis because they are widely believed to be helpful for second language acquisition. Specifically, this paper focuses on where interlocutors look during negotiated interactions in video SCMC and whether a statistical relationship exists between looking at a peer’s video image and successful meaning negotiation. Four dyads of English learners completed information gap tasks with potentially unknown words through learner–learner video SCMS interactions. Students’ multimodal performance was screen recorded for a gaze analysis and one-on-one interviews were conducted to confirm the students’ gaze directions. The results reveal a statistically significant positive relationship between the duration of one’s gaze at the peer’s video image and the number of successful meaning negotiation episodes in a dyad.

A Machine-Assisted Gaze Analysis Method for Students’ Psychological Evaluation

This article combines machine intelligence-assisted gaze analysis to construct a student psychological evaluation system, which provides a basis for solving student psychological evaluation methods. At the same time, by recognizing students’ behavioral characteristics and then their psychological characteristics, a PC-side application with multiple functions such as human-computer interaction, user data management, and physiological data display and storage has been developed. In addition, this article constructs an intelligent system structure to evaluate students’ psychology through expert diagnosis. Finally, this article evaluates the students’ psychology through the system and at the same time uses the comparative test method to evaluate the system. Experimental research shows that the student psychological evaluation system based on machine intelligence-assisted gaze analysis proposed in this paper is very close to the expert diagnosis result of student psychological evaluation.

A Study on the Mechanism of Social Robot Attitude Formation through Consumer Gaze Analysis: Focusing on the Robot Face

This study intends to utilize eye tracking for the appearance of a robot, which is one of the trends in social robot design research. We suggest a research model with the entire stage from the consumer gaze response to the perceived consumer beliefs and further their attitudes toward social robots. Specifically, the eye tracking indicators used in this study are Fixation, First Visit, Total Viewed Stay Time, and Number of Revisits. Also, Areas of Interest are selected to the face, eyes, lips, and full-body of a social robot. In the first relationship, we check which element of the social robot design the consumer’s gaze stays on, and how the gaze on each element affects consumer beliefs. The consumer beliefs are considered as the social robot’s emotional expression, humanness, and facial prominence. Second, we explore whether the formation of consumer attitudes is possible through two major channels. One is the path that the consumer beliefs formed through the gaze influence their attitude, and the other is the path that the consumer gaze response directly influences the attitude. This study made a theoretical contribution in that it finally analysed the path of consumer attitude formation from various angles by linking the gaze tracking reaction and consumer perception. In addition, it is expected to make practical contributions in the suggestion of specific design insights that can be used as a reference for designing social robots.

Metrics for objectively assessing operator training using eye gaze patterns

Process plant operators rely on their knowledge of process cause-and-effect relationships during abnormal situation management. Novice operators develop such process knowledge during training. Hence, holistic assessment of operators’ training is essential to ensure process safety. Currently, during training, operators’ process understanding is evaluated using criteria such as successful completion, task based measures, and operator actions that ignore their cognitive behavior. In this work, we propose an eye-tracking-based approach that uses the operator’s attention allocation during different pre-specified training scenarios along with process data, alarm information, and operator actions. Our approach is based on the precept that an operator would focus their attention on those variables on the human-machine interface that they believe have a direct causal relationship to the situation at hand. Also, expert operators seek time-based information for proactive monitoring. Accordingly, to quantify the progress of a novice operator’s learning, we develop two metrics — association metric and salience metric — using correspondence analysis of operators' eye gaze. To evaluate the applicability of the metrics, we conducted experiments with ten participants who performed 486 tasks. Statistical studies reveal that the proposed metrics can quantify operators’ learning and thus can be used to objectively evaluate training effectiveness.

How wide should you view to fight? Establishing the size of the visual field necessary for grip fighting in judo

ABSTRACT Peripheral vision is often considered vital in (combat) sports, yet most experimental paradigms (e.g., eye tracking) ignore peripheral information or struggle to make inferences about the role of peripheral vision in an in-situ performance environment. This study aimed to determine where visual information is located in the peripheral field during an in-situ combat sports task. Eight advanced judokas competed in grip-fighting exchanges while wearing a mobile eye-tracker to locate gaze direction. Three-dimensional position data of the head and hands were tracked using a VICON motion capture system. Gaze analysis through automatic feature detection showed that participants predominantly fixated on their opponent’s chest. Kinematic data were used to calculate the angles between the opponent’s hands and the gaze-anchor point on the chest of the opponent. Results revealed a nonlinear relationship between visual field (VF) size and visibility of the hands, with athletes needing a VF of at least 30–40 degrees radius to simultaneously monitor both hands of the opponent most of the time. These findings hold implications for the regulation of Paralympic judo for athletes with vision impairment, suggesting that a less severe degree of impairment should be required to qualify than the current criterion of 20 degrees radius.

Eye-tracking analyses of physician face gaze patterns in consultations

Face gaze is a fundamental non-verbal behaviour and can be assessed using eye-tracking glasses. Methodological guidelines are lacking on which measure to use to determine face gaze. To evaluate face gaze patterns we compared three measures: duration, frequency and dwell time. Furthermore, state of the art face gaze analysis requires time and manual effort. We tested if face gaze patterns in the first 30, 60 and 120 s predict face gaze patterns in the remaining interaction. We performed secondary analyses of mobile eye-tracking data of 16 internal medicine physicians in consultation with 100 of their patients. Duration and frequency of face gaze were unrelated. The lack of association between duration and frequency suggests that research may yield different results depending on which measure of face gaze is used. Dwell time correlates both duration and frequency. Face gaze during the first seconds of the consultations predicted face gaze patterns of the remaining consultation time (R2 0.26 to 0.73). Therefore, face gaze during the first minutes of the consultations can be used to predict face gaze patterns over the complete interaction. Researchers interested to study face gaze may use these findings to make optimal methodological choices.

Target position and avoidance margin effects on path planning in obstacle avoidance

This study examined how people choose their path to a target, and the visual information they use for path planning. Participants avoided stepping outside an avoidance margin between a stationary obstacle and the edge of a walkway as they walked to a bookcase and picked up a target from different locations on a shelf. We provided an integrated explanation for path selection by combining avoidance margin, deviation angle, and distance to the obstacle. We found that the combination of right and left avoidance margins accounted for 26%, deviation angle accounted for 39%, and distance to the obstacle accounted for 35% of the variability in decisions about the direction taken to circumvent an obstacle on the way to a target. Gaze analysis findings showed that participants directed their gaze to minimize the uncertainty involved in successful task performance and that gaze sequence changed with obstacle location. In some cases, participants chose to circumvent the obstacle on a side for which the gaze time was shorter, and the path was longer than for the opposite side. Our results of a path selection judgment test showed that the threshold for participants abandoning their preferred side for circumventing the obstacle was a target location of 15 cm to the left of the bookcase shelf center.

EVALUATING VISUAL IMPRESSIONS BASED ON GAZE ANALYSIS AND DEEP LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF ATTRACTIVENESS EVALUATION OF STREETS IN DENSELY BUILT-UP WOODEN RESIDENTIAL AREA

Abstract. This paper examines the possibility of impression evaluation based on gaze analysis of subjects and deep learning, using an example of evaluating street attractiveness in densely built-up wooden residential areas. Firstly, the relationship between the subjects' gazing tendency and their evaluation of street image attractiveness is analysed by measuring the subjects' gaze with an eye tracker. Next, we construct a model that can estimate an attractiveness evaluation result using convolutional neural networks (CNNs), combined with the method of gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) - these in in visualizing which street components can contribute to evaluating attractiveness. Finally, we discuss the similarity between the subjects' gaze tendencies and activation heatmaps created by Grad-CAM.

URBAN PARAMETRIC PERCEPTION. THE CASE STUDY OF THE HISTORIC CENTRE OF PERUGIA

Abstract. The study describes a new approach methodology to detect and represent emotions from signals measured by an Emotiv EPOC cascade. The developed algorithm aims to obtain an analysis of emotions based on EEG data with interpolation of these using the concepts of the circumplex model. This tool will help in the analysis of emotions produced by the atmosphere of an environment in relation to the position, detected by GPS. In addition, the same algorithm will be used to search for a graphic representation of immediate reading, by means of colour association with the output values obtained, to integrate those of gaze analysis obtained by Pupil Player software and position data.

Digital reminiscence app co-created by people living with dementia and carers: Usability and eye gaze analysis.

BackgroundThis research reports on a pilot study that examined the usability of a reminiscence app called ‘InspireD’ using eye tracking technology. The InspireD app is a bespoke digital intervention aimed at supporting personalized reminiscence for people living with dementia and their carers. The app was developed and refined in two co‐creation workshops and subsequently tested in a third workshop using eye tracking technology.InterventionEye tracking was used to gain insight into the user's cognition since our previous work showed that the think‐aloud protocol can add to cognitive burden for people living with dementia while also making the test more unnatural.ResultsResults showed that there were no barriers to using a wearable eye tracker in this setting and participants were able to use the reminiscence app freely. However, some tasks required prompts from the observer when difficulties arose. While prompts are not normally used in usability testing (as some argue the prompting defeats the purpose of testing), we used ‘prompt frequency’ as a proxy for measuring the intuitiveness of the task. There was a correlation between task completion rates and prompt frequency. Results also showed that people living with dementia had fewer gaze fixations when compared to their carers. Carers had greater fixation and saccadic frequencies when compared to people living with dementia. This perhaps indicates that people living with dementia take more time to scan and consume information on an app. A number of identified usability issues are also discussed in the paper.Patient or Public ContributionThe study presents findings from three workshops which looked at user needs analysis, feedback and an eye tracking usability test combined involving 14 participants, 9 of whom were people living with dementia and the remaining 5 were carers.

Years of experience is more effective in defining experts in the gaze analysis of laparoscopic suturing task than task duration

In this study, the relationship between gaze patterns, task duration, and years of experience, which are commonly used to define and evaluate expert surgeons in laparoscopic surgery, was identified. Ten surgeons with 1–28 years of experience and six inexperienced students were included. Subjects used forceps to repeat the task of suturing a suture pad. Each subject wore an eye-marking recorder, and gaze points were recorded and analyzed. No significant relationship between task duration and gaze pattern was observed. However, there was a significant relationship between a surgeon's years of experience and the percentage of time spent gazing at the forceps. Subjects with more years of experience operated without looking at the forceps and fixed their gaze on the operational target. Therefore, when analyzing laparoscopic gazing patterns, it may be more appropriate to define an “expert” based on the years of experience rather than task duration.

5-LB: A Machine Learning–Based Approach to Noninvasively Detect Hypoglycemia from Gaze Behavior While Driving

Aim: To non-invasively detect hypoglycemia in individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) based on gaze behavior while driving.Methods: Controlled hypoglycemia was induced in 19 individuals (12 males, age 32 ± 7.1 yrs) with T1D (HbA1c 7.1 ± 0.6% [54 ± 6 mmol/mol]) using an adapted hypoglycemic clamp protocol. Gaze and blood glucose (BG) data were gathered while driving in a simulator during three 18 min sessions: session 1 (BG 90-144 mg/dL), session 2 (BG declining from 72 to 45 mg/dL), and session 3 (BG 36-45 mg/dL). A gradient-boosting machine learning (ML) model was built for hypoglycemia (BG < 70 mg/dL) detection based on gaze behavior.Results: Mean venous BG was 105.4 ± 11.4 mg/dL during session 1, declined from 61.4 ± 6.1 mg/dL to 47.2 ± 8.5 mg/dL during session 2, and was 42.7 ± 4.1 mg/dL during session 3, respectively. Gaze analysis provided 29,968 data samples (1,577.5 ± 52 per subject, 10,041 euglycemia, 19,927 hypoglycemia). Overall, ML achieved an area under the receiver-operating-characteristics curve of 0.83 ± 0.09 for hypoglycemia detection with leave-one-subject-out cross-validation.Conclusion: ML-based gaze analysis shows high accuracy in non-invasive hypoglycemia detection while driving. Our approach offers promising potential in various settings where cameras are available.View largeDownload slideView largeDownload slide DisclosureV. Lehmann: None. E. Fleisch: Research Support; Self; CSS Health Insurance, Switzerland, Stock/Shareholder; Self; Pathmate-Technologies AG, Switzerland. F. Wortmann: None. C. Stettler: None. M. Maritsch: None. T. Zueger: None. A. Marxer: None. C. Bérubé: None. M. Kraus: None. C. Albrecht: None. S. Feuerriegel: None. T. Kowatsch: Advisory Panel; Self; Pathmate Technologies AG, Switzerland and Germany, Stock/Shareholder; Self; Pathmate Technologies AG, Switzerland and Germany.FundingSwiss National Science Foundation (SNF CRSII5_183569); Insel Group; Diabetes Center Berne

Age-related changes in visual encoding strategy preferences during a spatial memory task

Ageing is associated with declines in spatial memory, however, the source of these deficits remains unclear. Here we used eye-tracking to investigate age-related differences in spatial encoding strategies and the cognitive processes underlying the age-related deficits in spatial memory tasks. To do so we asked young and older participants to encode the locations of objects in a virtual room shown as a picture on a computer screen. The availability and utility of room-based landmarks were manipulated by removing landmarks, presenting identical landmarks rendering them uninformative, or by presenting unique landmarks that could be used to encode object locations. In the test phase, participants viewed a second picture of the same room taken from the same (0°) or a different perspective (30°) and judged whether the objects occupied the same or different locations in the room. We found that the introduction of a perspective shift and swapping of objects between encoding and testing impaired performance in both age groups. Furthermore, our results revealed that although older adults performed the task as well as younger participants, they relied on different visual encoding strategies to solve the task. Specifically, gaze analysis revealed that older adults showed a greater preference towards a more categorical encoding strategy in which they formed relationships between objects and landmarks.