Analogical Mapping Research Articles

Community Expansion and Infrastructure Development: Implications for Human Health and Environmental Quality in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador

Este estudio investiga la comunidad de Puerto Villamil ubicada en la Isla Isabela del archipiélago de los Galápagos. Se examina el desarrollo urbano y las interacciones humanas-ambientales a través de una perspectiva de la ciencia de información geográfica que incluye: (1) la construcción de una serie de tiempo de fotografías aéreas e imagenes satélites, (2) el mapeo de la infraestructura de agua y alcantarillado actual dentro el contexto del crecimiento comunal, con especial referencia a las medidas de la calidad del agua dentro y adyacente a la comunidad; el uso de grupos de discusión y entrevistas a oficiales de salud y residentes sobre las enfermedades trasmitidas por el agua y un análisis de la proximidad de la comunidad y sus infraestructuras al ambiente circundante.

Analyzing building stock using topographic maps and GIS

Building stock is an extremely cost-intensive and long-lived component of the settlement structure. Considering its importance, the information available on building stock and its development is often inadequate. Data such as the age and structure of buildings, the number of dwelling units and floors are not comprehensively available nor sufficiently processed. In order to fill this gap, this paper presents a method for the calculation of settlement structure parameters by means of a spatial disaggregation through a combination of building data obtained from topographic maps 1∶25 000, block boundaries taken from authoritative digital maps, and statistical data at municipality level. The inexpensive analogue maps are available nationwide and also for earlier time slices due to defined update intervals. The maps are scanned at high resolution and geo-referenced. The building stock, which is shown interspersed with traffic, vegetation and lettering, is filtered out by means of digital image processing. Buildings are then surveyed, relations to neighbouring buildings interpreted, and the general physical structure and block boundaries classified. Density can then be calculated either for the block boundaries or a reference geometry of one's choice (e.g. regular raster cells). By combining building type with typical reference density values for floor number and building area-related dwelling and resident densities, further settlement structure parameters can be calculated. Comparing the building stock on maps representing different time slices enables the development of the built environment to be analysed. The method has been implemented as a toolbox in Geographical Information System (GIS) software ESRI ArcGIS and is intended for use as a nationwide monitoring system of settlement and open space development. Le parc bâti est un élément de la structure du peuplement extrêmement coûteux et à la durée de vie extrêmement longue. Compte tenu de son importance, les informations disponibles sur le parc bâti et son développement sont souvent insuffisantes. Les données telles que l’âge et la structure des immeubles, le nombre de logements et d’étages ne sont pas disponibles dans leur ensemble, ni suffisamment traitées. Afin de combler cette lacune, cet article présente une méthode permettant de calculer les paramètres de la structure du peuplement en recourant à une ventilation spatiale obtenue grâce à une combinaison de données sur le bâti provenant des cartes topographiques au 1/25000ème, des limites de pâtés de maisons tirées de cartes numériques faisant autorité, et des données statistiques au niveau municipal. Des cartes analogiques bon marché sont disponibles pour tout le pays, ainsi que pour les tranches de temps antérieures du fait des intervalles de mise à jour définis. Les cartes sont numérisées en haute définition et géoréférencées. Le parc bâti, qui apparaît entrecoupé par la circulation, la végétation et les écritures cartographiques, est filtré en utilisant le traitement d'image numérique. Il est ensuite procédé à un relevé des immeubles, les relations avec les immeubles voisins sont interprétées, et la structure physique générale ainsi que les limites des pâtés de maisons sont classées. La densité peut alors être calculée pour les limites des pâtés de maisons ou bien pour une géométrie de référence de son choix (par ex., des cellules de quadrillage régulières). En combinant le type d'immeubles avec les valeurs types de la densité de référence pour le nombre d’étages et les densités de peuplement et résidentielles relatives au secteur bâti, il est possible de calculer d'autres paramètres de la structure de peuplement. En comparant le parc bâti sur des cartes représentant des tranches de temps différentes, il est possible d'analyser le développement de l'environnement bâti. Cette méthode a été mise en œuvre sous forme d'une palette d'outils dans le logiciel du Système d'Information Géographique (SIG) ESRI ArcGIS® et est destinée à être utilisée comme un système de suivi, à l’échelle nationale, du peuplement et du développement des espaces ouverts. Mots clés: parc bâti, Système Géographique d'Information (SIG), analyse du peuplement, structure du peuplement, cartes matricielles topographiques, Allemagne

Solving Geometric Analogy Problems Through Two‐Stage Analogical Mapping

Evans' 1968 ANALOGY system was the first computer model of analogy. This paper demonstrates that the structure mapping model of analogy, when combined with high-level visual processing and qualitative representations, can solve the same kinds of geometric analogy problems as were solved by ANALOGY. Importantly, the bulk of the computations are not particular to the model of this task but are general purpose: We use our existing sketch understanding system, CogSketch, to compute visual structure that is used by our existing analogical matcher, Structure Mapping Engine (SME). We show how SME can be used to facilitate high-level visual matching, proposing a role for structural alignment in mental rotation. We show how second-order analogies over differences computed via analogies between pictures provide a more elegant model of the geometric analogy task. We compare our model against human data on a set of problems, showing that the model aligns well with both the answers chosen by people and the reaction times required to choose the answers.

Selectivity in Enrichment of cAMP-dependent Protein Kinase Regulatory Subunits Type I and Type II and Their Interactors Using Modified cAMP Affinity Resins

cAMP regulates cellular functions primarily by activating PKA. The involvement of PKAs in various signaling pathways occurring simultaneously in different cellular compartments necessitates stringent spatial and temporal regulation. This specificity is largely achieved by binding of PKA to protein scaffolds, whereby a distinct group of proteins called A kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) play a dominant role. AKAPs are a diverse family of proteins that all bind via a small PKA binding domain to the regulatory subunits of PKA. The binding affinities between PKA and several AKAPs can be different for different isoforms of the regulatory subunits of PKA. Here we employ a combination of affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics to investigate specificity in PKA-AKAP interactions. Three different immobilized cAMP analogs were used to enrich for PKA and its interacting proteins from several systems; HEK293 and RCC10 cells and rat lung and testis tissues. Stable isotope labeling was used to confidently identify and differentially quantify target proteins and their preferential binding affinity for the three different cAMP analogs. We were able to enrich all four isoforms of the regulatory subunits of PKA and concomitantly identify more than 10 AKAPs. A selective enrichment of the PKA RI isoforms could be achieved; which allowed us to unravel which AKAPs bind preferentially to the RI or RII regulatory domains of PKA. Of the twelve AKAPs detected, seven preferentially bound to RII, whereas the remaining five displayed at least dual specificity with a potential preference for RI. For some of these AKAPs our data provide the first insights into their specificity.

現代美術の創作における「ずらし」のプロセスと創作ビジョン

The goal of this case study was to describe creation processes of contemporary artists from the perspective of Cognitive Science. We focused on the interaction among activities that affect long term processes of expertise and those that affect shorter term processes as the artist creates a series of work. We conducted retrospective interviews with two contemporary artists in their 40's using the portfolios of their past works so that they could recall their creation processes in detail. We found that the artists used an analogical modification process to produce a new series of artwork. Analogical modification is a cognitive process similar to analogical mapping, but modifies major features of the source structure while mapping it to the target. Artistic vision, which is formed through many years of creative activities and consists of main themes and goals for creation, plays an important role in guiding the usage of analogical modification. Analogical modification correspondingly appeared to deepen artistic vision.

Connecting Long Distance: Semantic Distance in Analogical Reasoning Modulates Frontopolar Cortex Activity

Solving problems often requires seeing new connections between concepts or events that seemed unrelated at first. Innovative solutions of this kind depend on analogical reasoning, a relational reasoning process that involves mapping similarities between concepts. Brain-based evidence has implicated the frontal pole of the brain as important for analogical mapping. Separately, cognitive research has identified semantic distance as a key characteristic of the kind of analogical mapping that can support innovation (i.e., identifying similarities across greater semantic distance reveals connections that support more innovative solutions and models). However, the neural substrates of semantically distant analogical mapping are not well understood. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure brain activity during an analogical reasoning task, in which we parametrically varied the semantic distance between the items in the analogies. Semantic distance was derived quantitatively from latent semantic analysis. Across 23 participants, activity in an a priori region of interest (ROI) in left frontopolar cortex covaried parametrically with increasing semantic distance, even after removing effects of task difficulty. This ROI was centered on a functional peak that we previously associated with analogical mapping. To our knowledge, these data represent a first empirical characterization of how the brain mediates semantically distant analogical mapping.

Computerized database of salt affected soils for Peninsular India using GIS

A computerized database of salt affected soils was prepared for five states – Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Orissa – based on the analogue maps of the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, India. The salt affected soil maps at 1:250,000 scale were georeferenced and digitized to prepare the digital polygons of salt affected soils using ILWIS software. The Survey of India State map at 1:1,000,000 scale was georeferenced and features for administrative and political boundaries (state/district), infrastructure (road/railway), irrigation and drainage (river/canal) and settlements (state/district capitals) were digitized to prepare the thematic layers for the basemap. These were overlaid onto the salt affected soil layer to prepare the state map of salt affected soils. A composite (master) database comprising salt affected soils in five states was prepared using GIS. The soil characteristics such as nature and degree of salinity/sodicity and its ground coverage were entered in an attribute table and linked with the digitized polygons to prepare a relational database. Four agroclimatic regions (ACRs) and 42 agroclimatic zones (ACZs) were identified by the Planning Commission of India for regional planning and development of natural resources in Peninsular India. The boundaries of the ACRs and ACZs were delineated from the primary (master) database using ILWIS GIS. Superimposing digitized boundaries of ACRs and ACZs over the master database, the salt affected soils were delineated to show the distribution of salt affected soils at regional and zonal scales. The state-, region- and zone-wise extent of salt affected soils was calculated. The soils were essentially saline in Orissa and Kerala state, distributed in the coastal, deltaic plains and mud flats/mangrove swamps. In Andhra Pradesh, soils were saline (53%) and sodic (47%), distributed in the peninsular (64%), coastal (24%) plains and mud flats/mangrove swamps (12%). The salt affected soils in Karnataka were primarily sodic (99%), located in the alluvial plain. In Tamil Nadu, soils were dominantly sodic (96%), distributed in the peninsular (95%) plain. Soils with variable salinity were also found in the coastal (74%) and deltaic (16%) plains and mudflats/mangrove swamps (10%) of Orissa and in the coastal plain (3%) of Tamil Nadu. A significant area under salt affected soils (69%) was found in ACR XI (East Coast Plains and Hills Region), distributed in Tamil Nadu (34%), Andhra Pradesh (19%) and Orissa (15%); followed by 26% in ACR X (Southern Plateau and Hills Region), located in Karnataka (16%), Andhra Pradesh ((9%) and Tamil Nadu (2%) and 5% in ACR XII (West Coast Plain and Ghat Region), comprising Kerala (2%) and Tamil Nadu (3%) States. The zonal distribution showed that the extent of salt affected soils was higher in the semiarid regions (rainfall <1000 mm) of Karnataka (84%), Tamil Nadu (93%) and Andhra Pradesh (64%). State maps of salt affected soils in digital format were overlaid with agroecosubregions, landforms, geology and rainfall data to show the relation between the extent of salt affected soils and the characteristics of agroregions, climatic parameters and the nature of parent materials. Thus the digitization of salt affected soil maps in GIS format provides a georeferenced, easy-to-access and retrieve, relational database comprising thematic and attribute information of salt affected soils at state, regional and zonal levels and facilitates overlay and map calculation of related data for planning and decision making in the reclamation and management of salt affected soils in Peninsular India and other similar regions.

Analogical modification in the creation of contemporary art

The goal of this study was to propose a framework to describe the analogical process in the context of creation. We conducted retrospective interviews with two contemporary artists in their forties using portfolios of their past works so that they could recall their creation processes in detail. We found that the artists often use analogical modification to produce new series of artwork. Analogical modification is a cognitive process used to generate a new target, in the context of creation, by changing values of a source to make differences during analogical mapping. We found three types of analogical modification, namely, subject modification, structure modification, and concept modification. Creative vision, which is formed through many years of creative activity and consists of long-term intentions or goals for creation, plays an important role in guiding the use of analogical modification. The process of artistic creation can be better understood using the framework of the interaction between activities in different time spans, such as analogical modification and creative vision.

Finding similarity in a model of relational reasoning

Similarity plays a central role in the study of perception and cognition. Previous attempts to model similarity have captured effects of either featural or structural similarity, but typically not both. We simulated both by fitting similarity data with the LISA model of relational reasoning [Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (1997). Distributed representations of structure: A theory of analogical access and mapping. Psychological Review, 104, 427–466, Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (2003a). A symbolic-connectionist theory of relational inference and generalization. Psychological Review, 110, 220–264]. The same mechanisms LISA uses to simulate analogy also provide a natural account of feature-based similarity effects (e.g., violations of symmetry), structural effects (e.g., the advantage of alignable over non-alignable differences), and the combined effects of featural and structured information (i.e., MIPs and MOPs; “Matches In/Out of Place”) on similarity judgments. Our approach differs from most models of similarity in that LISA was not originally designed to simulate similarity judgments, but rather analogical reasoning. LISA’s incidental ability to simulate diverse similarity effects speaks to the plausibility of the model’s account of human knowledge representation.

Using analogical mapping to simulate time-course phenomena in perceptual similarity

We present a computational model of visual similarity. The model is based upon the idea that perceptual comparisons may utilize the same mapping processes as are used in analogy. We use the Structure Mapping Engine (SME), a model of Gentner’s structure-mapping theory of analogy, to perform comparison on representations that are automatically generated from visual input. By encoding visual scenes incrementally and sampling the output of SME at multiple stages in its processing, we are able to model not only the output of similarity judgments, but the time course of the comparison process. We demonstrate the model’s effectiveness by replicating the results from three psychological studies that bear on the time course of comparison.

Skill transfer through goal-driven representation mapping

In this paper, we present an approach to transfer that involves analogical mapping of symbols across different domains. We relate this mechanism to I carus, a theory of the human cognitive architecture. Our system can transfer skills across domains hypothesizing maps between representations, improving performance in novel domains. Unlike previous approaches to analogical transfer, our method uses an explanatory analysis that compares how well a new domain theory explains previous solutions under different mapping hypotheses. We present experimental evidence that the new mechanism improves transfer over I carus’ basic learning processes. Moreover, we argue that the same features which distinguish I carus from other architectures support representation mapping in a natural way and operate synergistically with it. These features enable our analogy system to translate a map among concepts into a map between skills, and to support transfer even if two domains are only partially analogous. We also discuss our system’s relation to other work on analogy and outline directions for future research.

The Latent Relation Mapping Engine: Algorithm and Experiments

Many AI researchers and cognitive scientists have argued that analogy is the core of cognition. The most influential work on computational modeling of analogy-making is Structure Mapping Theory (SMT) and its implementation in the Structure Mapping Engine (SME). A limitation of SME is the requirement for complex hand-coded representations. We introduce the Latent Relation Mapping Engine (LRME), which combines ideas from SME and Latent Relational Analysis (LRA) in order to remove the requirement for hand-coded representations. LRME builds analogical mappings between lists of words, using a large corpus of raw text to automatically discover the semantic relations among the words. We evaluate LRME on a set of twenty analogical mapping problems, ten based on scientific analogies and ten based on common metaphors. LRME achieves human-level performance on the twenty problems. We compare LRME with a variety of alternative approaches and find that they are not able to reach the same level of performance.

Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Quick Estimation of the Population Growth in Khartoum State

Satellite imagery acquired by IKONOS imaging system in 2003 and the analog map of the study area at scale 1:25000 (1984) have been used to estimate the population growth taken place in Halfaya Town. Remote sensing, digital image processing and GIS techniques were used to achieve the objectives of this study. Different procedures such as, image restoration, image enhancement, topology, spatial analysis and overlay have been applied to model the urban growth in the study area between the year 1984 and the year 2003 .Based on the developed GIS model of the study area the estimated population growth rate was found to be 233%. The study proved that integrated remote sensing and GIS techniques have great impact on detecting environmental changes and man-made features variations through time.

Relational Reasoning in a Neurally-Plausible Cognitive Architecture: An Overview of the LISA Project

Human mental representations are both flexible and structured—properties that, together, present challenging design requirements for a model of human thinking. The Learning and Inference with Schemas and Analogies (LISA) model of analogical reasoning aims to achieve these properties within a neural network. The model represents both relations and objects as patterns of activation distributed over semantic units, integrating these representations into propositional structures using synchrony of firing. The resulting propositional structures serve as a natural basis for memory retrieval, analogical mapping, analogical inference, and schema induction. The model also provides an a priori account of the limitations of human working memory and can simulate the effects of various kinds of brain damage on thinking.

Conservation and Rewiring of Functional Modules Revealed by an Epistasis Map in Fission Yeast

An epistasis map (E-MAP) was constructed in the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, by systematically measuring the phenotypes associated with pairs of mutations. This high-density, quantitative genetic interaction map focused on various aspects of chromosome function, including transcription regulation and DNA repair/replication. The E-MAP uncovered a previously unidentified component of the RNA interference (RNAi) machinery (rsh1) and linked the RNAi pathway to several other biological processes. Comparison of the S. pombe E-MAP to an analogous genetic map from the budding yeast revealed that, whereas negative interactions were conserved between genes involved in similar biological processes, positive interactions and overall genetic profiles between pairs of genes coding for physically associated proteins were even more conserved. Hence, conservation occurs at the level of the functional module (protein complex), but the genetic cross talk between modules can differ substantially.

Moving to the Speed of Sound: Context Modulation of the Effect of Acoustic Properties of Speech

Suprasegmental acoustic patterns in speech can convey meaningful information and affect listeners' interpretation in various ways, including through systematic analog mapping of message-relevant information onto prosody. We examined whether the effect of analog acoustic variation is governed by the acoustic properties themselves. For example, fast speech may always prime the concept of speed or a faster response. Alternatively, the effect may be modulated by the context-dependent interpretation of those properties; the effect of rate may depend on how listeners construe its meaning in the immediate linguistic or communicative context. In two experiments, participants read short scenarios that implied, or did not imply, urgency. Scenarios were followed by recorded instructions, spoken at varying rates. The results show that speech rate had an effect on listeners' response speed; however, this effect was modulated by discourse context. Speech rate affected response speed following contexts that emphasized speed, but not without such contextual information.

Parish classification or dwelling coordinate for exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology — A comparative study using Geographical Information System

Background: Two previous epidemiological studies on the incidence of total malignancies in Sweden after the Chernobyl accident have shown consistently increased risks. The first study used an analogue map on 137Cs from 1986 to classify individuals in terms of the parish they lived in. In the second study, dwelling coordinates were matched to a digital map from the year 2000 to assess the individual exposure. To establish the accuracy of the exposure assessment using the larger unit of parish, instead of coordinates, we decided to compare the methods. Methods: On the analogue map eleven isolines on the deposition of 137Cs (kBq/m 2) were used to classify all individuals in each of the 450 parishes. Using the digital map, by contrast, each dwelling with its inhabitants could be matched to 137Cs deposition at a coordinate level. A population-weighted average of 137Cs deposition was calculated for each parish. In total, 1,126,960 individuals and 450 parishes were included and analysed into six different exposure categories. Results: Using the new parish exposure index, 111 out of the 450 parishes were reclassified as a result of the increased resolution of the digital map (86 parishes) or unequal distribution of the population compared with the deposition (25 parishes). Seventy-five per cent of the parishes remained in the same exposure category as on the analogue map. Conclusion: Using dwelling coordinates for exposure assessment may not always be superior to parish classification. Nor is it always a cost-effective way of estimating the exposure, especially if the exposure in a parish is relatively homogenous or if parishes can be merged into broader categories with little intra-parish difference.

The neural basis of analogical reasoning: An event-related potential study

The spatiotemporal analysis of brain activation during the execution of easy analogy (EA) and difficult analogy (DA) tasks was investigated using high-density event-related brain potentials (ERPs). Results showed that reasoning tasks (schema induction) elicited a more negative ERP deflection (N500–1000) than did the baseline task (BS) between 500 and 1000 ms. Dipole source analysis of difference waves (EA-BS and DA-BS) indicated that the negative components were both localized near the left thalamus, possibly associated with the retrieval of alphabetical information. Furthermore, DA elicited a more positive ERP component (P600–1000) than did EA in the same time window. Two generators of P600–1000 were located in the medial prefrontal cortex (BA10) and the left frontal cortex (BA6) which was possibly involved in integrating information in schema abstraction. In the stage of analogy mapping, a greater negativity (N400–600) in the reasoning tasks as compared to BS was found over fronto-central scalp regions. A generator of this effect was located in the left fusiform gyrus and was possibly related to associative memory and activation of schema. Then, a greater negativity in the reasoning tasks, in comparison to BS task, developed between 900–1200 ms (LNC1) and 2000–2500 ms (LNC2). Dipole source analysis (EA-BS) localized the generator of LNC1 in the left prefrontal cortex (BA 10) which was possibly related to mapping the schema to the target problem, and the generator of LNC2 in the left prefrontal cortex (BA 9) which was possibly related to deciding whether a conclusion correctly follows from the schema.

Isolation and linkage mapping of NBS-LRR resistance gene analogs in red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) and classification among 270 Rosaceae NBS-LRR genes

Plant R genes confer resistance to pathogens in a gene-for-gene mode. Seventy-five putative resistance gene analogs (RGAs) containing conserved domains were cloned from Rubus idaeus L. cv. ‘Latham’ using degenerate primers based on RGAs identified in Rosaceae species. The sequences were compared to 195 RGA sequences identified from five Rosaceae family genera. Multiple sequence alignments showed high similarity at multiple nucleotide-binding site (NBS) motifs with homology to Drosophila Toll and mammalian interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) and non-TIR RNBSA-A motifs. The TIR sequences clustered separately from the non-TIR sequences with a bootstrap value of 76%. There were 11 clusters each of TIR and non-TIR type sequences of multiple genera with bootstrap values of more than 50%, including nine with values of more than 75% and seven of more than 90%. Polymorphic sequence characterized amplified region and cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence markers were developed for nine Rubus RGA sequences with eight placed on a red raspberry genetic linkage map. Phylogenetic analysis indicated four of the mapped sequences share sequence similarity to groupTIR I, while three others were spread in non-TIR groups. Of the 75 Rubus RGA sequences analyzed, members were placed in five TIR groups and six non-TIR groups. These group classifications closely matched those in 12 of 13 studies from which these sequences were derived. The analysis of related DNA sequences within plant families elucidates the evolutionary relationship and process involved in pest resistance development in plants. This information will aid in the understanding of R genes and their proliferation within plant genomes.

Generalized Elliptic Integrals

Jacobi’s elliptic integrals and elliptic functions arise naturally from the Schwarz-Christoffel conformal transformation of the upper half plane onto a rectangle. In this paper we study generalized elliptic integrals which arise from the analogous mapping of the upper half plane onto a quadrilateral and obtain sharp monotonicity and convexity properties for certain combinations of these integrals, thus generalizing analogous well-known results for classical conformal capacity and quasiconformal distortion functions. An algorithm for the computation of the modulus of the quadrilateral is given.