Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors Research Articles

Short-term reduction of dietary gluten improves metabolic-dysfunction associated steatotic liver disease: A randomised, controlled proof-of-concept study.

The current management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) relies on lifestyle intervention. Prior studies have shown that nutritional wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI) activate toll-like receptor 4 on intestinal myeloid cells to enhance intestinal and extra-intestinal inflammation, including the promotion of murine MASLD, insulin resistance and liver fibrosis. We aimed to assess the impact of ATI (gluten)-free diet in liver as well as metabolic parameters of biopsy-proven MASLD patients. We performed a 6-week, proof-of-concept 1:1 randomised controlled trial of an ATI-free diet. The controls followed a balanced diet recommended by the German Nutrition Society. We assessed changes in controlled attenuation parameter (CAP), body mass index (BMI) and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR). Patient-reported outcomes were assessed by the CLDQ-NASH questionnaire. Forty-five patients were consecutively enrolled (21 in the intervention arm and 24 in the control arm). Three patients from each arm discontinued the study. In the ATI-free diet group, a significant decrease in BMI (p = 0.018), CAP (p = 0.018) and HOMA-IR (p = 0.042) was observed at 6 weeks. The mean difference in CAP between the two arms at week 6 was 30.5 dB/m (p = 0.039), with a delta significantly higher in the ATI-free diet group (p = 0.043). Only an ATI-free diet could achieve a significant improvement in CLDQ-NASH domains (p value for total scoring: 0.013). A short-term ATI-free diet leads to significant improvements in liver and metabolic parameters, as well as patient-reported outcomes with good tolerability. A larger follow-up study is justified to corroborate these findings. NCT04066400.

Dietary wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors exacerbate CNS inflammation in experimental multiple sclerosis

ObjectiveWheat has become a main staple globally. We studied the effect of defined pro-inflammatory dietary proteins, wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI), activating intestinal myeloid cells via toll-like receptor 4, in...

Impact of food processing on the allergenic properties of amylase trypsin inhibitors from wheat

Impact of food processing on the allergenic properties of amylase trypsin inhibitors from wheat

Breeding from 1891 to 2010 did not increase the content of amylase/trypsin-inhibitors in wheat (Triticum aestivum)

The prevalence of hypersensitivities towards wheat has increased in the last decades. Apart from celiac disease these include allergic and other inflammatory reactions summarized under the term non-celiac wheat sensitivity. One suspected trigger is the family of amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATIs), non-gluten proteins that are prominent wheat allergens and that activate the toll-like receptor 4 on intestinal immune cells to promote intestinal and extra-intestinal inflammation. We therefore quantified 13 ATIs in 60 German hexaploid winter wheat cultivars originating from 1891 to 2010 and harvested in three years by targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry combined with stable isotope dilution assay using specific marker peptides as internal standards. The total ATI content and that of the two major ATIs 0.19 and CM3 did not change from old cultivars (first registered from 1891 to 1950) to modern cultivars (1951–2010). There were also no significant changes in ATI distribution.

Genetic characterization of FODMAPs and ATIs in heritage and modern spring wheat

AbstractThe fermentable oligo‐, di‐, and monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) and amylase–trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) present in wheat flour can trigger irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms and intestinal inflammation. Lowering FODMAPs and ATIs concentrations in wheat flour could make the grain accessible to humans with IBS. This study evaluated a diverse panel of heritage and modern spring wheat lines for FODMAPs and ATIs concentrations and carried out a genome‐wide association analysis. A moderately strong population structure was observed as the first two principal component axes explained 10.9% of the genotypic variation, and lines grouped into three clusters. Trait correlations within and across locations ranged from −0.33 to 0.87. Broad‐sense heritabilities ranged from 0.30 to 0.67. Evaluation of 33 varieties released by the University of Minnesota between 1915 and 2020 revealed no significant changes over time in ATIs or FODMAPs concentrations. Association analysis resulted in detection of 38 quantitative trait loci (QTL) in 12 chromosomes and three of the 38 QTL were common between two traits in the St. Paul location. The QTL were of small to medium effect as the range of explained phenotypic variation was 4.9%–11.8%. There was no overlap among the QTL regions reported in this research compared with those reported from previously published studies. Genomic prediction models predicted the traits with low to moderate trait correlations that ranged from 0.13 to 0.34. Discovery of markers associated with FODMAPs and ATIs, in conjunction with a genome‐wide selection strategy, could aid in selection of breeding lines with desirable concentrations of these compounds.

Exploration of defensive protein Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors from wheat: A novel approach for crop protection

Exploration of defensive protein Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors from wheat: A novel approach for crop protection

Reference proteomes of five wheat species as starting point for future design of cultivars with lower allergenic potential

Wheat is an important staple food and its processing quality is largely driven by proteins. However, there is a sizable number of people with inflammatory reactions to wheat proteins, namely celiac disease, wheat allergy and the syndrome of non-celiac wheat sensitivity. Thus, proteome profiles should be of high importance for stakeholders along the wheat supply chain. We applied liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomics to establish the flour reference proteome for five wheat species, ancient to modern, each based on 10 cultivars grown in three diverse environments. We identified at least 2540 proteins in each species and a cluster analyses clearly separated the species based on their proteome profiles. Even more, >50% of proteins significantly differed between species - many of them implicated in products’ quality, grain-starch synthesis, plant stress regulation and proven or potential allergic reactions in humans. Notably, the expression of several important wheat proteins was found to be mainly driven by genetics vs. environmental factors, which enables selection and refinement of improved cultivars for the wheat supply chain as long as rapid test methods will be developed. Especially einkorn expressed 5.4 and 7.2-fold lower quantities of potential allergens and immunogenic amylase trypsin inhibitors, respectively, than common wheat, whereas potential allergen content was intermediate in tetraploid wheat species. This urgently warrants well-targeted clinical studies, where the developed reference proteomes will help to design representative test diets.

A19 INVESTIGATING MECHANISMS THAT DRIVE SYMPTOMS IN IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME PATIENTS WITH PERCEIVED GLUTEN SENSITIVITY

Abstract Background Patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) often report gastrointestinal symptoms after consuming wheat and gluten-containing foods. It is, however, unclear whether gluten is the main driver of symptoms, as other immunogenic peptides, such as amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI), poorly digestible fiber (inulin, part of FODMAP) or even the nocebo effect may contribute to symptom generation. Purpose To evaluate whether whole wheat containing ATIs and/or purified gluten trigger gastrointestinal symptoms compared to nocebo in patients with IBS adopting a gluten-free diet (GFD). Method We conducted a double-blind, randomized, nocebo-controlled crossover study in adult IBS patients (Rome IV criteria) who previously perceived improvement of symptoms while on a GFD. The study was approved by the Hamilton Research Ethics Board (HiREB #4367). Participants were challenged for 7 days with whole wheat, purified gluten, and nocebo (gluten-free flour) added to low FODMAP cereal bars. Each challenge was followed by a 2-week washout. Patients remained on a GFD throughout the study, diet adherence was assessed by a dietitian and stool gluten immunogenic peptides (GIP; Biomedal). Gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed by IBS Symptom Severity Score (IBS-SSS); increases >50 points were considered a significant worsening. Blood samples were collected to assess immune markers and celiac (HLA DQ2, DQ8 and DQ7) genotype. Statistical comparisons used Friedman rank sum tests and paired Wilcoxon signed rank tests. Result(s) Twenty-nine IBS patients (27 female, mean age=42, SD=14.4 years) were enrolled in the study; 1 dropped. Similar proportions of patients reacted symptomatically to wheat (11/28, 39.3%), gluten (10/28, 35.7%) and nocebo (8/28, 28.6%). However, there was an overall significant increase in IBS symptoms after wheat (+39.5 on IBS-SSS; p=0.030) but not after gluten (+27.5; p=0.051) or nocebo (+5.5; p=0.236) challenges (Figure 1). Ten participants experienced IBS-SSS symptoms >175 during baseline and did not worsen further during the challenges. TNF-α trended from 1.35 pg/mL after nocebo, 1.47 pg/mL after gluten, to 1.57 pg/mL after wheat; however, this was not significant. Baseline adherence to a GFD was rated excellent in 19 (68%), good in 6 (21%), and fair in 3 (11%) participants. Median GIP levels were 0.584 µg/g after wheat, 0.432 µg/g after gluten, and 0.095 µg/g after nocebo; p<0.0001. Celiac predisposition genes were present in 19/24 participants (10/24 had DQ2, 2/24 had DQ8, and 9/24 had DQ7). Image Conclusion(s) IBS patients self-reporting wheat or gluten sensitivity had worse symptoms after whole wheat, but not purified gluten or nocebo challenge. However, similar proportions of IBS patients reacted to each intervention, suggesting that central mechanisms play an important role in symptom genesis. Furthermore, one third of patients had high symptoms during a GFD and did not react to wheat or gluten challenges, suggesting that other mechanisms are driving their IBS symptoms. Please acknowledge all funding agencies by checking the applicable boxes below CIHR, Other Please indicate your source of funding; Society for the Study of Celiac Disease (Nestle); Canadian Digestive Health Foundation Disclosure of Interest None Declared

Nonceliac gluten sensitivity.

To describe recent advances on nonceliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS), a recently described disorder characterized by variable symptoms and frequent irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)-like manifestations. The recent description of disease-triggering wheat components other than gluten, such as fructans and amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs), definitely suggests that nonceliac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) is a better 'umbrella' terminology than NCGS. Self-reported NCWS is very common worldwide, particularly in patients seen at the gastroenterology clinic, but many of these diagnoses are not confirmed by standard clinical criteria. A biomarker of NCWS is still lacking, however, subtle histological features at the small intestinal biopsy may facilitate diagnosis. Treatment of NCWS is based on the gluten-free diet (GFD). The GFD has proven to be an effective treatment of a significant proportion of NCWS-related IBS patients. Dietary therapies for IBS, including the GFD, should be offered by dietitians who first assess dietary triggers and then tailor the intervention according to patient choice. Pioneer studies are under way to test the therapeutic efficacy of supplemental gluten-digesting enzyme preparations in patients with NCWS. Recent studies highlight interesting pathophysiological and clinical features of NCWS. Many questions remain, however, unanswered, such as the epidemiology, a biomarker(s), and the natural history of this clinical entity.

No correlation between amylase/trypsin-inhibitor content and amylase inhibitory activity in hexaploid and tetraploid wheat species

Wheat amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATI) are known triggers for wheat-related disorders. The aims of our study were to determine (1) the inhibitory activity against different α-amylases, (2) the content of albumins and globulins (ALGL) and total ATI and (3) to correlate these parameters in wholegrain flour of hexaploid, tetraploid and diploid wheat species.The amount of ATI within the ALGL fraction varied from 0.8% in einkorn to 20% in spelt. ATI contents measured with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) revealed similar contents (1.2–4.2 mg/g) compared to the results determined by LC-MS/MS (0.2–5.2 mg/g) for all wheat species except einkorn. No correlation was found between ALGL content and inhibitory activity. In general, hexaploid cultivars of spelt and common wheat had the highest inhibitory activities, showing values between 897 and 3564 AIU/g against human salivary α-amylase. Tetraploid wheat species durum and emmer had lower activities (170–1461 AIU/g), although a few emmer cultivars showed similar activities at one location. In einkorn, no inhibitory activity was found. No correlation was observed between the ATI content and the inhibitory activity against the used α-amylases, highlighting that it is very important to look at the parameters separately.

Attenuation of immune activation in patients with multiple sclerosis on a wheat-reduced diet: a pilot crossover trial.

Western lifestyle has been associated with an increase in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). In mice, dietary wheat amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) activate intestinal myeloid cells and augment T cell-mediated systemic inflammation. The aim of this study was to assess whether a wheat- and thus ATI-reduced diet might exert beneficial effects in RRMS patients with modest disease activity. In this 6-month, crossover, open-label, bicentric proof-of-concept trial, 16 RRMS patients with stable disease course were randomized to either 3 months of a standard wheat-containing diet with consecutive switch to a > 90% wheat-reduced diet, or vice versa. The primary endpoint was negative, as the frequency of circulating pro-inflammatory T cells did not decrease during the ATI-reduced diet. We did, however, observe decreased frequencies of CD14+ CD16++ monocytes and a concomitant increase in CD14++ CD16- monocytes during the wheat-reduced diet interval. This was accompanied by an improvement in pain-related quality of life in health-related quality of life assessed (SF-36). Our results suggest that the wheat- and thus ATI-reduced diet was associated with changes in monocyte subsets and improved pain-related quality of life in RRMS patients. Thus, a wheat (ATI)-reduced diet might be a complementary approach accompanying immunotherapy for some patients. German Clinical Trial Register (No. DRKS00027967).

The challenge to reduce crude protein contents of wheat-based broiler diets

The challenge to reduce crude protein (CP) contents of wheat-based broiler diets is both justified and formidable because the performance of broiler chickens offered reduced-CP, wheat-based diets is usually compromised. Moreover, broiler chickens offered wheat-based diets do not accommodate CP reductions as well as do those offered maize-based diets; this appears to stem from the higher protein concentrations and more rapid starch digestion rates of wheat. The higher protein concentrations of wheat than maize result in elevated inclusion levels of non-bound (synthetic, crystalline) amino acids (NBAA). This may be an impediment, because non-bound and protein-bound amino acids are not bioequivalent and intestinal uptakes of NBAA are more rapid than their protein-bound counterparts. This leads to post-enteral amino acid imbalances and the deamination of surplus amino acids, which generates ammonia (NH3). Because NH3 is inherently detrimental, it must be detoxified and eliminated as uric acid, which attracts metabolic costs. Moreover, inadequate NH3 detoxification may seriously compromise broiler growth performance. Also, consideration is given to some intrinsic wheat factors, including soluble non-starch polysaccharides, amylase–trypsin inhibitors and gluten, that may hold relevance. Several strategies are proposed that may enhance the performance of birds offered reduced-CP, wheat-based diets, including capping dietary starch:protein ratios, blending wheat with sorghum, whole-grain feeding in association with phytase, dietary inclusions of L-carnitine and the use of protected or slow-release amino acids. In future research, it should prove instructive to compare different wheats with a wide range of protein contents that, importantly, have been fully characterised for relevant parameters, to ascertain the most appropriate properties. The successful development and adoption of reduced-CP, wheat-based diets would be an enormous advantage for the Australian chicken-meat industry as it would diminish the huge dependence on imported, expensive soybean meal.

Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors (ATIs) in a Selection of Ancient and Modern Wheat: Effect of Genotype and Growing Environment on Inhibitory Activities

Wheat amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) are a family of plant defense proteins with an important role in human health for their involvement in allergies, celiac disease and non-celiac wheat sensitivity. Information about the differences in ATI activities among wheat genotypes and the influence of the growing environment is scarce. Therefore, ten selected wheat accessions with different ploidy level and year of release, previously characterized for their ATI gene sequences, were grown during three consecutive crop years at two growing areas and used for in vitro ATI activities. The contributions of the genotype and the crop year were significant for both activities. The hexaploid wheat genotypes showed the highest inhibitory activities. Einkorn had a peculiar behavior showing the lowest alpha-amylase inhibitory activity, but the highest trypsin inhibitory activity. It was not possible to observe any trend in ATI activities as a function of the release year of the wheat samples. The two inhibitory activities were differently affected by the growing conditions and were negatively correlated with the protein content. This information can be important in understanding the extent of variation of ATI inhibitory properties in relation to the wheat genotype and the growing environment and the impact of ATIs, if any, on human health and nutrition.

Impact of sourdough fermentation on FODMAPs and amylase-trypsin inhibitor levels in wheat dough

FODMAPs (fermentable oligo-, di-, and monosaccharides and polyols) and ATIs (Amylase-Trypsin inhibitors) have been reported to trigger intestinal symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients and individuals with non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS). The objective of this work was to investigate the FODMAP and ATI contents of 22 different wheat varieties grown in two locations in Minnesota, USA, and further study the effect of type I sourdough fermentation (4- and 12-h fermentation times) on the FODMAP and ATI levels in these varieties. FODMAPs and ATIs were quantified using High-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC) and High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), respectively. FODMAPs and ATIs were significantly influenced by variety as well as growing location. Longer sourdough fermentation time (12 h) caused up to 69%, 69%, and 41% reductions in fructans, raffinose, and ATIs, respectively, in the resulting sourdoughs. However, a substantial increase in mannitol (550%) was observed after sourdough fermentation. These results suggest that mannitol should be monitored in addition to other FODMAPs during type I sourdough fermentation, and strategies to reduce their levels during type I sourdough fermentation and in final products should be considered.

Absolute and relative quantitation of amylase/trypsin-inhibitors by LC-MS/MS from wheat lines obtained by CRISPR-Cas9 and RNAi

Quantitation of wheat proteins is still a challenge, especially regarding amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATIs). A selection of ATIs was silenced in the common wheat cultivar Bobwhite and durum wheat cultivar Svevo by RNAi and gene editing, respectively, in order to reduce the amounts of ATIs. The controls and silenced lines were analyzed after digestion to peptides by LC-MS/MS with different approaches to evaluate changes in composition of ATIs. First, a targeted method with stable isotope dilution assay (SIDA) using labeled peptides as internal standards was applied. Additionally, four different approaches for relative quantitation were conducted, in detail, iTRAQ labeled and label free quantitation (LFQ) combined with data dependent acquisition (DDA) and data independent acquisition (DIA). Quantitation was performed manually (Skyline and MASCOT) and with different proteomics software tools (PLGS, MaxQuant, and PEAKS X Pro). To characterize the wheat proteins on protein level, complementary techniques as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gel electrophoresis were performed. The targeted approach with SIDA was able to quantitate all ATIs, even at low levels, but an optimized extraction is necessary. The labeled iTRAQ approach revealed an indistinct performance. LFQ with low resolution equipment (IonTrap) showed similar results for major ATIs, but low abundance ATIs as CM1, were not detectable. DDA measurements with an Orbitrap system and evaluation using MaxQuant showed that the relative quantitation was dependent on the wheat species. The combination of manual curation of the MaxQuant search with Skyline revealed a very good performance. The DIA approach with analytical flow found similar results compared to absolute quantitation except for some minor ATIs, which were not detected. Comparison of applied methods revealed that peptide selection is a crucial step for protein quantitation. Wheat proteomics faces challenges due to the high genetic complexity, the close relationship to other cereals and the incomplete, redundant protein database requiring sensitive, precise and accurate LC-MS/MS methods.

Identifying the shortfalls of crude protein-reduced, wheat-based broiler diets.

The objective of this review is to identify the shortfalls of wheat-based, crude protein (CP)-reduced diets for broiler chickens as wheat is inferior to maize in this context but to inconsistent extents. Inherent factors in wheat may be compromising gut integrity; these include soluble non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI) and gluten. Soluble NSP in wheat induce increased gut viscosities, which can lead to compromised gut integrity, which is not entirely ameliorated by NSP-degrading feed enzymes. Wheat ATI probably compromise gut integrity and may also have the capacity to increase endogenous amino acid flows and decrease apparent starch and protein digestibilities. Gluten inclusions of 20 g/kg in a maize-soy diet depressed weight gain and feed intake and higher gluten inclusions have been shown to activate inflammatory cytokine-related genes in broiler chickens. Further research is required, perhaps particularly in relation to wheat ATI. The protein content of wheat is typically higher than maize; importantly, this results in higher inclusions of non-bound amino acids in CP-reduced broiler diets. These higher inclusions could trigger post-enteral amino acid imbalances, leading to the deamination of surplus amino acids and the generation of ammonia (NH3) which, if not adequately detoxified, results in compromised growth performance from NH3 overload. Thus, alternatives to non-bound amino acids to meet amino acid requirements in birds offered CP-reduced, wheat-based diets merit evaluation. The digestion of wheat starch is more rapid than that of maize starch which may be a disadvantage as the provision of some slowly digestible starch in broiler diets may enhance performance. Alternatively, slowly digestible starch may result in more de novo lipogenesis. Therefore, it may prove instructive to evaluate CP-reduced diets based on maize-wheat and/or sorghum–wheat blends rather than entirely wheat. This would reduce non-bound amino acid inclusions by lowering dietary CP derived from feed grains and may enhance starch digestive dynamics by retarding starch digestion rates. Also, the use of biomarkers to monitor gut integrity in broiler chickens is examined where calprotectin, ovotransferrin and possibly citrulline appear to hold promise, but their validation requires further research.

Diploid Wheats: Are They Less Immunogenic for Non-Celiac Wheat Sensitive Consumers?

Non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) is a clinical entity induced by the ingestion of gluten that leads to intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms, and is diagnosed when celiac disease and wheat allergy have been ruled out. In addition to gluten, other grains’ components, including amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) and fermentable short-chain carbohydrates (FODMAPs), may trigger symptoms in NCWS subjects. Several studies suggest that, compared with tetraploid and hexaploid modern wheats, ancient diploid wheats species could possess a lower immunogenicity for subjects suffering from NCWS. This review aims to discuss available evidence related to the immunological features of diploid wheats compared to common wheats, and at outlining new dietary opportunities for NCWS subjects.

Wheat Amylase Trypsin Inhibitors Aggravate Intestinal Inflammation Associated with Celiac Disease Mediated by Gliadin in BALB/c Mice.

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune intestinal disorder caused by the ingestion of gluten in people who carry the susceptible gene. In current celiac disease research, wheat gluten is often the main target of attention, neglecting the role played by non-gluten proteins. This study aimed to describe the effects of wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI, non-gluten proteins) and gliadin in BALB/c mice while exploring the further role of relevant adjuvants (cholera toxin, polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid and dextran sulfate sodium) intervention. An ex vivo splenocyte and intestinal tissue were collected for analysis of the inflammatory profile. The consumption of gliadin and ATI caused intestinal inflammation in mice. Moreover, the histopathology staining of four intestinal sections (duodenum, jejunum, terminal ileum, and middle colon) indicated that adjuvants, especially polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid, enhanced the villi damage and crypt hyperplasia in co-stimulation with ATI and gliadin murine model. Immunohistochemical results showed that tissue transglutaminase and IL-15 expression were significantly increased in the jejunal tissue of mice treated with ATI and gliadin. Similarly, the expression of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-13) and Th1/Th2 balance also showed that the inflammation response was significantly increased after co-stimulation with ATI and gliadin. This study provided new evidence for the role of wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors in the pathogenesis of celiac disease.

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) from a selection of ancient and modern wheat

Wheat amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) are a family of wheat proteins, which play an important role in plant defence against pest attacks. Recently, ATIs have been identified as major stimulators of human innate immune cells leading to cause Non-celiac Wheat Sensitivity. Information about ATI sequence differences among wheat species is scarce, especially considering ancient wheat genotypes. In this study, ten selected wheat accessions with different ploidy level and year of release were used for gene sequencing of four representative alpha-amylase/trypsin inhibitor genes (WMAI, WDAI, WTAI-CM3 and CMx genes). The phylogenetic analysis and the PCA analysis performed on the deduced amino acid sequences of ATI genes evidenced that the ten wheat genotypes can be differentiated on the basis of their ploidy level, but not with respect to ancient or recently developed wheat genotypes. The haplotype analysis based on Nei's genetic distances, beside confirming these results, also allowed the separation of the hulled from the naked wheat genotypes. The genetic sequence differences highlighted in this study among the ten genotypes can be the basis for further studies aimed at identifying proinflammatory sequences in ATI genes. This is the first study analyzing the ATI genetic sequences of a set of ancient and modern wheat genotypes with a different ploidy level.

Sourdough Fermentation as a Tool to Improve the Nutritional and Health-Promoting Properties of Its Derived-Products

Cereal products are staple foods highly appreciated and consumed worldwide. Nonetheless, due to the presence of gluten proteins, and other co-existing compounds such as amylase-trypsin inhibitors and fermentable short-chain carbohydrates in those products, their preference by consumers has substantially decreased. Gluten affects the small gut of people with celiac disease, triggering a gut inflammation condition via auto-immune response, causing a cascade of health disorders. Amylase-trypsin inhibitors and fermentable short-chain carbohydrate compounds that co-exists with gluten in the cereal-based foods matrix have been associated with several gastrointestinal symptoms in non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Since the symptoms are somewhat overlapped, the relation between celiac disease and irritable bowel syndrome has recently received marked interest by researchers. Sourdough fermentation is one of the oldest ways of bread leavening, by lactic acid bacteria and yeasts population, converting cereal flour into attractive, tastier, and more digestible end-products. Lactic acid bacteria acidification in situ is a key factor to activate several cereal enzymes as well as the synthesis of microbial active metabolites, to positively influence the nutritional/functional and health-promoting benefits of the derived products. This review aims to explore and highlight the potential of sourdough fermentation in the Food Science and Technology field.