Amplifier Circuit Research Articles

Prospective Review of Magneto-Resistive Current Sensors with High Sensitivity and Wide Temperature Range

Current sensors play a vital role in power systems, industrial production, smart devices and other fields, which can provide critical current information in the systems for the safety and efficiency managements. The development of magneto-resistive effect technology in recent years expedites the research process of the current sensors in industrial-level applications. In the review, starting with the development status of the current sensors, the physical mechanisms of the relevant magneto-resistive effects and their early applications as the current sensors are introduced. Several design methods of the magnetic sensors, as well as their merits and shortcomings, are summarized. The performance parameters of the magnetic sensors based on AMR, GMR, TMR and Hall effects are reviewed, including the front-end amplification circuits and conditioning circuits. The industrial applications of the current sensors in the fields of automobiles and photovoltaic inverters are enumerated. The criterions for the current sensors to be used in different scenarios are discussed. In the future, it is imperative to continue the research and development of novel current sensors in order to satisfy the increasingly stringent demands of the industrial developments, in terms of the performance, cost and reliability of the current sensors.

Design and fabrication of S-band power amplifier for wireless sensor networks

This paper discusses the process of designing and manufacturing a wideband power amplifier operating in the S-band. To amplify a low power and broadband radio frequency signals from 2.1 GHz to 2.5 GHz, the proposed power amplifier uses a diagram of a two-stages amplification with peak offset amplification frequency 2.3 GHz. The power amplifier is designed with a center frequency difference of 2.2 GHz and 2.4 GHz respectively to achieve a bandwidth of 400 MHz. The proposed power amplifier (PA) uses RF transistor SHF-0589 using gallium arsenide heterostructure field-effect transistor (GaAs HFET) technology for high gain and low power consumption. The complete amplifier achieves power gain 21.1 dB inband 2.1-2.5 GHz and achieve maximum power gain of 22.5 dB at the frequency of 2.4 GHz; the output power rise up to 33 dBm; input reflection coefficient (S11) reaches -19.2 dB and output reflection coefficient reaches -17.2 dB. The designed amplifier circuit can be used for wireless sensor networks operating at S-band.

Design of multi-component gas measurement system based on STM32

Abstract To detect the concentration of toxic and harmful gases in the environment in a timely and effective manner, this article designs a multi-component gas measurement system based on the STM32 processor, which can effectively detect three toxic and harmful gases (CO, NO2, and SO2), a gas detection terminal for the concentration of two greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) and an inhalable particulate matter (PM2.5), and a handheld display terminal that can display the measured gas concentration in real-time. A practical application circuit for electrochemical sensors has been designed, simplifying the design of driving amplification circuits. Finally, the feasibility of the system was verified through automobile exhaust experiments.

Optimization Method of SiC MOSFET Switching Trajectory Based on Variable Current Drive

Silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs exhibit superior performance compared to traditional silicon (Si) MOSFETs, characterized by faster switching speeds, lower on-resistance, higher breakdown voltage, and greater operational temperature tolerance. These attributes make SiC MOSFETs highly suitable for applications in electric vehicles, charging stations, and mobile devices. However, their rapid switching speed can intensify current and voltage overshoot and oscillations during device switching, leading to increased device losses or potential damage. To address this issue, this paper proposes a current-type active gate drive (AGD) circuit. The circuit first detects the rate of change in the drain current and drain-source voltage. Subsequently, it employs an analog amplifier circuit and adjustable drive resistors to decelerate the rate of change in the drain-source voltage and drain current. As a result, overshoot and oscillation in the drain-source voltage and drain current are mitigated. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed AGD circuit can reduce drain current overshoot by 60%, drain-source voltage overshoot by 15.38%, and waveform oscillations. Additionally, the AGD circuit decreases conduction and turn-off losses by 24% and effectively mitigates electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues within the frequency range of 0.1 to 3 MHz.

GaAs-on-insulator based vertical heterojunction tunnel FET: proposal and analysis for VLSI circuit applications

This work analyses the Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)-on-insulator based vertical heterojunction tunnel FET with Gallium Antimonide (GaSb) as source material and GaAs as channel/drain material (GaSb/GaAs VTFET) to enhance the performance of the device and is compared with the Silicon-based VTFET. Silvaco Atlas TCAD tool is employed to perform numerical calculations. Tentative fabrication process flow of GaSb/GaAs VTFET is presented. GaSb is a low bandgap material that enhances the tunneling of charge carriers at source-channel heterojunction. GaSb/GaAs VTFET device outperforms Si-based VTFET in terms of electrical performance metrics such as ON-state current (ION), and ION/IOFF increases by a factor of 11 and 270 respectively; whereas OFF-state current (IOFF), subthreshold swing (SS), threshold voltage (VT) and drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL) reduce by 95.98%, 39.36%, 17.14% and 29.17% respectively. Further, analog/RF and linearity/distortion performance analysis is carried out. GaSb/GaAs VTFET has improved analog/RF performances in terms of cut-off frequency (fT), gain-bandwidth product (GBP), transit time (τ), device efficiency (DE), transconductance frequency product (TFP) and suppressed distortions in compare to Si-based VTFET. Finally, GaSb/GaAs VTFET is evaluated for process variations and designing digital inverter and common source amplifier circuits. The Look-up-table (LUT) based Verilog-A model within the CADENCE tool has been employed to scrutinize the transient responses of inverter and common source amplifier circuits. Unity gain frequency and 3-dB bandwidth obtained for GaSb/GaAs VTFET amplifier are 15 GHz and 5.97 GHz. Therefore, this work presents GaSb/GaAs VTFET’s strong candidature for analog and digital VLSI circuit designing.

Catalytic hairpin-assembled and DNAzyme-driven DNA walker integrated hybridization chain reaction to construct a label-free electrochemical aptasensor for the detection of acetamiprid

As a new type of nicotine pesticide, the excessive residue of acetamiprid (ACE) in food and the environment seriously poses human health. Hence, this article developed an electrochemical aptasensor for detecting ACE based on a cascaded amplification circuit composed of catalytic hairpin-assembled and DNAzyme-driven DNA walker and hybridization chain reaction. Through the target triggered catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA), the free travelling strand of DNA walker and intact catalytic core of DNAzyme were formed, and with the assistance of Mg2+, DNAzyme was activated, driving the travelling strand to walk autonomously, repeatedly cutting hairpin DNA substrates on the electrode surface, and obtaining abundant DNA fragments. These fragments contained the initiators of hybridization chain reaction (HCR) could trigger HCR and produce the long double-strand DNA (dsDNA) for loading methylene blue (MB). Owing to the fact that Ce(Ⅲ, Ⅳ)-MOF material with electrocatalytic activity, the electrochemical reduction of MB could be effectively catalyzed, obtain significantly enhanced current signals, and ultimately achieve label-free and sensitive detection of ACE, with a detection limit of 16.38 fM (S/N = 3). Moreover, the aptasensor demonstrated excellent selectivity, stability, and reproducibility, and exhibited good reliability for detecting ACE in the vegetable soil and tomato samples, providing a new idea for the detection of pesticide residues in the fields of food and environment.

A Novel Dung Beetle Optimization Approach for Automatic CMOS Analog Circuit Design

The main objective of the automated circuit sizing technique is to deal with the challenges of design tradeoffs in analog circuit design with improved accuracy and efficacy. Analog circuit design represents a multi-objective optimization challenge, where designers must properly balance various performance factors such as input and output impedance, power dissipation, area, unity-gain bandwidth, slew rate, and open-loop DC gain. Traditional design equations provide a sizing of differential amplifier MOS transistors, further optimization can be achieved through the application of meta-heuristic search techniques. Meta-heuristic search techniques can be used as local optimizers in a smaller search area to improve the optimization of design parameters. The differential amplifier circuit with current mirror load is optimized through the application of the Dung Beetle Optimization (DBO) algorithm. By using an evolutionary algorithm called DBO, all the required parameters were achieved with the least amount of transistor area and power dissipation when compared to the results of the Seeker Optimization Algorithm (SOA), Opposition based Harmony Search Algorithm (OHS), craziness-based particle swarm optimization (CRPSO), and Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithms.

Coupling of photovoltaics with neurostimulation electrodes—optical to electrolytic transduction

Objective. The wireless transfer of power for driving implantable neural stimulation devices has garnered significant attention in the bioelectronics field. This study explores the potential of photovoltaic (PV) power transfer, utilizing tissue-penetrating deep-red light—a novel and promising approach that has received less attention compared to traditional induction or ultrasound techniques. Our objective is to critically assess key parameters for directly powering neurostimulation electrodes with PVs, converting light impulses into neurostimulation currents. Approach. We systematically investigate varying PV cell size, optional series configurations, and coupling with microelectrodes fabricated from a range of materials such as Pt, TiN, IrO x , Ti, W, PtO x , Au, or poly(3,4 ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate). Additionally, two types of PVs, ultrathin organic PVs and monocrystalline silicon PVs, are compared. These combinations are employed to drive pairs of electrodes with different sizes and impedances. The readout method involves measuring electrolytic current using a straightforward amplifier circuit. Main results. Optimal PV selection is crucial, necessitating sufficiently large PV cells to generate the desired photocurrent. Arranging PVs in series is essential to produce the appropriate voltage for driving current across electrode/electrolyte impedances. By carefully choosing the PV arrangement and electrode type, it becomes possible to emulate electrical stimulation protocols in terms of charge and frequency. An important consideration is whether the circuit is photovoltage-limited or photocurrent-limited. High charge-injection capacity electrodes made from pseudo-faradaic materials impose a photocurrent limit, while more capacitive materials like Pt are photovoltage-limited. Although organic PVs exhibit lower efficiency than silicon PVs, in many practical scenarios, stimulation current is primarily limited by the electrodes rather than the PV driver, leading to potential parity between the two types. Significance. This study provides a foundational guide for designing a PV-powered neurostimulation circuit. The insights gained are applicable to both in vitro and in vivo applications, offering a resource to the neural engineering community.

Photoelectrochemical Solution Gated Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Functionalized by Enzymatic Cascade Reaction for Organophosphate Detection.

Solution Gated Graphene Field-Effect Transistors (SGGT) are eagerly anticipated as an amplification platform for fabricating advanced ultra-sensitive sensors, allowing significant modulation of the drain current with minimal gate voltage. However, few studies have focused on light-matter interplay gating control for SGGT. Herein, this challenge is addressed by creating an innovative photoelectrochemical solution-gated graphene field-effect transistor (PEC-SGGT) functionalized with enzyme cascade reactions (ECR) for Organophosphorus (OPs) detection. The ECR system, consisting of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and CuBTC nanomimetic enzymes, selectively recognizes OPs and forms o-phenylenediamine (oPD) oligomers sediment on the PEC electrode, with layer thickness related to the OPs concentration, demonstrating time-integrated amplification. Under light stimulation, the additional photovoltage generated on the PEC gate electrode is influenced by the oPD oligomers sediment layer, creating a differentiated voltage distribution along the gate path. PEC-SGGT, inherently equipped with built-in amplification circuits, sensitively captures gate voltage changes and delivers output with an impressive thousandfold current gain. The seamless integration of these three amplification modes in this advanced sensor allows a good linear range and highly sensitive detection of OPs, with a detection limit as low as 0.05pm. This work provides a proof-of-concept for the feasibility of light-assisted functionalized gate-controlled PEC-SGGT for small molecule detection.

Design of high gain MMIC amplifier for LEO satellite communication systems

In this paper, we present a novel design of S-band monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) amplifier based on GaAs Mesfet HFET-1102 transistor used in radiofrequency (RF) and microwave communications system. Basing on Chebyshev gain response an analytical method is used to design two stages lumped microwave amplifier. The matching networks constituted by lumped elements are transformed to T inductive networks and the resulting amplifier is optimized using RF simulator software. Thelumped optimized amplifier is then transformed to distributed amplifier and implemented on Rogers TMM3 substrate, largely used in microwave circuits. The proposed MMIC distributed amplifier is stable in the frequency band (2–4 GHz) and excellent performances are obtained in terms of very high gain reaching a peak of 34.23 dB, minimum input return loss (S11) of −8.85 dB at f=2.62 GHz, minimum output return loss (S22) of −12.21 dB at f=2.05 GHz and very good output/input isolation (S12) lower than −51.99 dB. For its excellent performances, the proposed MMIC distributed amplifier, is very suitable for use in space telecommunications as in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites onboard receivers where the high gain amplifier is very important to assure the success of the space missions.

Design and High Performance Evaluation of a Low Power Bit-Line SRAM PMOS Biased Sense Amplifier

Sense amplifiers developed into very big circuits due to their significant role in Memory design. The sense amplifier plays a significant role in terms of its recital, Functionality and reliability of the memory circuits. Fast access time and low power Dissipation are achieved with newly developed circuits of sense amplifiers for low voltage supply. Static RAM is the sense amplifiers at the ends of the two Complementary bit lines that amplify the small voltages to a normal logic level. Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of random access memory that retains data bits in its Memory as long as power is supplied. The proposed circuit is a P-type metal oxide Semiconductor (PMOS) biased sense amplifier, which provides very high, output Impedance, has reduced sense delay, and has reduced power dissipation. It performs the same operations as conventional circuits. The proposed circuit has a smaller number of transistors, so sensing delay and power consumption are also reduced. These circuits are simulated and examined using the Tanner EDA tool employing 180 nm technology library parameters. Key Words: Low power consumption, Power Consumption, Sense amplifiers, sense delay, static RAM.

Organic-inorganic hybrid piezotronic bipolar junction transistor for pressure sensing

With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoTs), wearable sensors are playing an increasingly important role in daily monitoring of personal health and wellness. The signal-to-noise-ratio has become the most critical performance factor to consider. To enhance it, on the one hand, good sensing materials/devices have been employed; on the other hand, signal amplification and noise reduction circuits have been used. However, most of these devices and circuits work in an active sampling mode, requiring frequent data acquisition and hence, entailing high-power consumption. In this scenario, a flexible and wearable event-triggered sensor with embedded signal amplification without an external power supply is of great interest. Here, we report a flexible two-terminal piezotronic n-p-n bipolar junction transistor (PBJT) that acts as an autonomous and highly sensitive, current- and/or voltage-mediated pressure sensor. The PBJT is formed by two back-to-back piezotronic diodes which are defined as emitter-base and collector-base diodes. Upon force exertion on the emitter side, as a result of the piezoelectric effect, the emitter-base diode is forward biased while the collector-base diode is reverse biased. Due to the inherent BJT amplification effect, the PBJT achieves record-high sensitivities of 139.7 kPa-1 (current-based) and 88.66 kPa-1 (voltage-based) in sensing mode. The PBJT also has a fast response time of <110 ms under exertion of dynamic stimuli ranging from a flying butterfly to a gentle finger touch. Therefore, the PBJT advances the state of the art not only in terms of sensitivity but also in regard to being self-driven and autonomous, making it promising for pressure sensing and other IoT applications.

Photonic crystal-enhanced fluorescence biosensor with logic gate operation based on one-pot cascade amplification DNA circuit for enzyme-free and ultrasensitive analysis of two microRNAs

The development of sensitive and efficient analytical methods for multiple biomarkers is crucial for cancer screening at early stage. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a kind of biomarkers with diagnostic potential for cancer. However, the ultrasensitive and logical analysis of multiple miRNAs with simple operation still faces some challenges. Herein, a photonic crystal (PC)-enhanced fluorescence biosensor with logic gate operation based on one-pot cascade amplification DNA circuit was developed for enzyme-free and ultrasensitive analysis of two cancer-related miRNAs. The fluorescence biosensor was performed by biochemical recognition amplification module (BCRAM) and physical enhancement module (PEM) to achieve logical and sensitive detection. In the BCRAM, one-pot cascade amplification circuit consisted of the upstream parallel entropy-driven circuit (EDC) and the downstream shared catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA). The input of target miRNA would trigger each corresponding EDC, and the parallel EDCs released the same R strand for triggering subsequent CHA; thus, the OR logic gate was obtained with minimization of design and operation. In the PEM, photonic crystal (PC) array was prepared easily for specifically enhancing the fluorescence output from BCRAM by the optical modulation capabilities; meanwhile, the high-throughput signal readout was achieved by microplate analyzer. Benefiting from the integrated advantages of two modules, the proposed biosensor achieved ultrasensitive detection of two miRNAs with easy logic gate operation, obtaining the LODs of 8.6 fM and 6.7 fM under isothermal and enzyme-free conditions. Hence, the biosensor has the advantages of high sensitivity, easy operation, multiplex and high-throughput analysis, showing great potential for cancer screening at early stage.

IoT-enabled novel heterostructure FET-based hybrid sensor for real-time arsenic detection

This work presents a novel approach to real-time water quality monitoring using sensor networks based on the Internet of Things (IoT). By integrating sensors made from heterogeneous materials with existing electronic platforms, these systems can outperform homogeneous ones, offering superior sensor performance with higher selectivity and a lower limit of detection (LoD). In this work, a highly sensitive sensor architecture for detecting arsenic (As3+) in water has been developed by integrating a novel heterostructure of dendritic ReS2 with a large surface area and graphene with dithiothreitol (DTT)-functionalized gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs). The sensor can rapidly detect As3+ in less than 2 seconds, with an ultra-low LoD of 10 pM (or 0.0008 ppb). This is the lowest among FET-based sensors and significantly below the EPA’s maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 130 nM for As3+ in drinking water. The proposed sensor platform demonstrates fast, sensitive, selective, and repeatable detection capabilities, indicating its great potential for in-situ monitoring. This can be achieved either autonomously or through sensor-integrated amplifier circuits, which in our work showed a small signal gain of approximately 14. Importantly, all active materials are synthesized using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) based on commercial tools which suggests that these sensors can be produced at a wafer scale, paving the way for large-scale commercial production. The entire system is connected through an IoT-enabled intelligent sensing platform, representing a vision for state-of-the-art sensor network technology.

Amplification- and Enzyme-Free Magnetic Diagnostics Circuit for Whole-Genome Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) requires thermal cycling and enzymatic reactions for sequence amplification, hampering their applications in point-of-care (POC) settings. Magnetic bioassays based on magnetic particle spectroscopy (MPS) and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are isothermal, wash-free, and can be quantitative. Realizing them amplification- and enzyme-free on a benchtop device, they will become irreplaceable for POC applications. Here we demonstrate a first-in-class magnetic signal amplification circuit (MAC) that enables detection of whole genome of SARS-CoV-2 by combining the specificity of toehold-mediated DNA strand displacement with the magnetic response of MNPs to declustering processes. Using MAC, we detect the N gene of SARS-CoV-2 samples at a concentration of 104 RNA copies/μl as determined by droplet digital PCR. Further, we demonstrate that MAC can reliably distinguish between SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses. Being a wash-, amplification- and enzyme-free biosensing concept and working at isothermal conditions (25 °C) on a low-cost benchtop MPS device, our MAC biosensing concept offers several indispensable features for translating nucleic acid detection to POC applications.

Research on Filtering Algorithm of Vehicle Dynamic Weighing Signal

This study analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of filtering algorithms for dynamic weighing signals. Highway road surface has road surface unevenness and other influencing factors. The body vibration of the vehicle driving process produces a certain amount of interference signals collected by the load cell to form noise signals. In addition, piezoelectric sensors and amplification circuits introduce a large amount of electrical noise. These noise signals are non-smooth, nonlinear, and have other characteristics. We study the filtering effects of moving average (MA), wavelet transform (WT), and variational mode decomposition (VMD) filtering algorithms on axle weight signals and evaluate the performance of the filtering algorithms through the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and Normalized Correlation Coefficient (NCC). The comprehensive analysis shows that the variational modal decomposition filtering algorithm is more advantageous for axial weight signal processing. The design of the axle weight signal noise filtering algorithm is of great significance for improving the accuracy of the overall dynamic weighing system of the vehicle.

Analysis of the parasitic capacitance effects on the layout of latch-based sense amplifiers for improving SRAM performance

Static random-access memory (SRAM) technology is utilized in designing cache memory to enhance the processing performance of computer systems. The sense amplifier (SA) circuit, a crucial component of memory design, significantly impacts data access time and power consumption. In comparison to conventional differential sense amplifiers (DSA) designs, latch-based sense amplifiers (LSA) used in memory-based computing platforms have specific requirements, including robust noise resistance in harsh working environments and low power consumption, particularly for internet of thing (IoT) embedded computing applications. However, the performance can be degraded due to various factors that arise during the layout, such as conductor resistance or the development of parasitic capacitance. Therefore, this study employs low-voltage 22 nm UMC CMOS technology for LSA design layout and analyzes the factors influencing design performance post-layout process. Layout design optimization techniques are applied to mitigate the impact of parasitic capacitance on important signal lines such as data line/data line bar (DLL/DLLB). Based on the performance analysis results, it is possible to achieve a reduction in power consumption of up to 15% and a 5% decrease in read delay time by implementing circuit layout LSA design optimization techniques.

Design and construction of an affordable optical power meter: micro- to milli-Watt in the 400–800 nm range

This study introduces the design, construction, and evaluation of an affordable optical power meter prototype, AYR (Affordable Yet Reliable) version 1.0, which operates effectively within the 400–800 nm range, using a silicon photodiode. Aimed at bridging the gap in accessibility to precise and reliable photonics instrumentation, especially in resource-constrained settings, AYR 1.0 leverages advancements in photodiode technology, additive manufacturing, and do-it-yourself electronics. The device incorporates a custom-built electronic circuit that facilitates accurate optical power measurement by converting light into electrical current. Through rigorous testing against a reliable commercial optical power meter, AYR 1.0 demonstrated exceptional accuracy and reliability. Sensitivity values ranged from ∼13 μA mW−1 at 405 nm to ∼796 μA mW−1 at 805 nm. The operational power range spanned from 0.003 mW to 242.0 mW, with linearity (R 2) values consistently above 0.9981, indicating high fidelity in measurement. Repeatability percentages varied between 99.4% and 99.9%, and response times ranged up to 55 μs, showcasing the prototype’s rapid and reliable response to changes in optical power. The key components include a low-cost silicon photodiode (2DU10), a differential trans-impedance amplifier circuit for signal processing, and a 3D-printed housing for the sensor head and console, contributing to its cost-effectiveness and robustness. The prototype’s total cost was 116 US dollars, highlighting its affordability and potential for widespread adoption.

Automatic Power Factor Compensation (APFC) for Industrial Power Use to Minimize Penalty

Abstract: In this proposed system, two zero crossing detectors are used for detecting zero crossing of voltage and current. The project is designed to minimize penalty for industrial units using automatic power factor correction unit. The microcontroller used in this project belongs to 8051 family. The time lag between the zero-voltage pulse and zero-current pulse is duly generated by suitable operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode is fed to two interrupt pins of a microcontroller. The program takes over to actuate appropriate number of relays from its output to bring shunt capacitors into load circuit to get the power factor till it reaches near unity. The capacitor bank and relays are interfaced to the microcontroller using a relay driver. It displays time lag between the current and voltage on an LCD. Furthermore, the project can be enhanced by using thyristor control switches instead of relay control to avoid contact pitting often encountered by switching of capacitors due to high in rush current

Rapid ultrasensitive and specific BNP biosensor with LED readout.

Biosensing for diagnostics has risen rapidly in popularity over the past decades. With the discovery of new nanomaterials and morphologies, sensitivity is being constantly improved enough for reliable detection of trace biomarkers in human samples, like serum or sweat. This precision has enabled detailed research on the efficacy of biosensors. However, current biosensors suffer from reduced speed of operation. To make better use of this sensitivity, the development of a conductometric biosensor with in-situ use of an Laser Emitting Device (LED) display can provide rapid determination of sample results, steadily pushing biosensors toward more clinical, point-of-care (POC) applications. In this research, a simple LED was used for facile optical determination and visual output of an ultrasensitive bio-signal amplification circuit was made to interface with a B-type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) biosensor. Tuning circuit gain enables an elegant method for adjustable separation of concentrations into 3 discrete categories: sub-threshold, analog, and saturation regions. These regions corresponded to 0 < [C] < 500pg/mL (25, 100, 250pg/mL, LED off), 500 < [C] < 1000pg/mL (LED varying intensity), and 1000pg/mL < [C] (LED full intensity). System efficacy was tested using human blood serum samples from University of Pittsburgh Medical Center patients, which were able to be accurately detected and sorted for rapid low cost and power. determination without need for complex digital elements. Additional specificity testing suggests insignificant impact of non-target biomarkers.