Amaranthus Caudatus Research Articles

Amaranthaceae is a large family of angiosperms consisting of the former Amaranthaceae sensu stricto and the former Chenopodiaceae, distributed from the tropics to the more temperate regions. Amaranths were independently domesticated in Asia and America. For seed production, three native American species, referred to as grain amaranths, resulted from human artificial selection and cultivation over thousands of years: Amaranthus caudatus, A. cruentus, and A. hypochondriacus. This review attempts to give a survey of the research in amaranths since Sauer (1918-2008). In addition, we try to clarify confusion in literature by posing following questions. 1. Were Sauer's proposals corroborated by recent research? 2. Is there consensus on an ancestor of the grain amaranths? 3. What is the domestication syndrome of grain amaranths? 4. Is there consensus on the domestication of grain amaranths? Sauer's hypothesis that the three grain amaranths originated from a single ancestor, and that artificial selection combined with hybridization with wild species resulted in the three grain amaranths, is corroborated by most recent authors. There is consensus that the three grain amaranths originated from Amaranthus hybridus. However, it appears that A. hybridus is polyphyletic. Only seed color is predominantly present in the literature as a symptom of the grain amaranths domestication syndrome. There is no consensus on the degree of domestication of the grain amaranths.In the literature, there is a lot of confusion on terminology, the way of displaying dates, concepts and geographical locations. However, we can conclude that there is consensus about the South American Andes and large parts of Mexico as geographical origins of domestication. Without doubt, the lack of good phylogenetic hypotheses for Amaranthus also blurs each attempt to clarify the evolution of the cultivated amaranths from their wild ancestors.

Background: The plant extracts are used as medicine either based upon nature of compounds present or their solubility in various chemicals. The leaves of Amaranthus caudatus are used from ancient days by tribal people to cure lung diseases, liver diseases, renal diseases, stomach ulcers and haemorrhoids. Previous studies were conducted with solvents like methanol and ethanol. Both these solvents revealed many phytocompounds which has therapeutic values. The analysis repoted still left incomplete, hence complete knowledge of all compounds extracted with other common solvents are essential to get whole idea. Aim: To gain the knowledge about the different chemicals present in the aqueous, ethyl acetate and hexane leaf extract of Amaranthus caudatus. Material And Methods: The combination of Gas Chromatography GC-2010 and QP-2020 SHIMADZU Japan corporation analyzers with different solvent mixture were used to encounter the list of bioactive phytochemicals. NIST 20 M library were used to match the available phytochemicals with their corresponding details. Results: The hot aqueous extraction was revealed the presence of 61 phytochemicals with Cis 11 ecosinamide, 1Heptanol, 1,2-Diphenyl ethane, Hexadecenoic acid, Cis Sinapyl alcohol, Undecane were some of the major components seen. The Ethyl acetate extraction was confirmed 60 phytocomponents with Dl alpha tocopherol, Trihydrocholanic acid, Eicosane, Tetradecane were the major compounds seen during the extraction while Hexane extraction method was revealed the presence of 47 compounds with Squalene, Octacosane 2 Methyl, Heneicosane, 2 Methyl tetracosane as the major components. Conclusion: Aqueous extraction was revealed cis 11 Eicosenamide and Ethyl acetate extract was revealed dl alpha tocopherol while the Hexane extraction detected Squalene in the highest peaks. Cis 11 Ecosenamide is well known anticancer agent, Dl Alpha tocopherol is form of vitamin E used for sterility related problems and squalene protect the skin damages as well as loaded with anti-inflammatory properties. Most of the components in aqueous extract had anti-inflammatory properties. Ethyl acetate extract had antimicrobial properties while the hexane extract had mixed responses with antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory functions.

Drought stress affects plant growth and production. To cope with drought stress, plants induced physiological and metabolic changes, serving as a protective approach under drought-stress conditions. The response to drought can vary based on plant type (C3 vs. C4) and the intensity of the stress. Therefore, here we aimed to investigate the different responses of wheat C3-Triticum aestivum and C4-Amaranthus caudatus plants to drought stress. To this end, the growth, photosynthetic parameters, oxidative stress, total antioxidant capacity, primary metabolites (amino acids and organic and fatty acids) and secondary metabolites (polyamines) were analyzed. Drought stress reduced growth, biomass, relative water content, water potential, and photosynthesis in both plants, with more severe effects observed in wheat. Drought-induced reduction in photosynthesis was linked to lower stomatal conductance, reduced photosynthetic enzyme activity, and decreased Fv/Fm, indicating impaired PSII function, effects that were more pronounced in wheat than in amaranth. This was accompanied by increased oxidative damage, as indicated by elevated levels of lipid peroxidation. To cope with drought stress, both plants accumulated metabolites involved in antioxidant defense and osmoregulation, including total antioxidant capacity, soluble sugars, proline, polyamines, organic acids, and fatty acids. This response was more pronounced in wheat, indicating its active deployment of defenses to cope with significant stress, in contrast to Amaranthus' greater physiological resilience.

Nutritional and mineral composition of Amaranthus caudatus leaves in Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia

With population growth, the need for natural products with a good nutritional balance increases. Digestibility is an important factor that defines the nutritional diet and the quality of proteins. This work aims to evaluate the protein digestibility of Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) seeds. Amaranthus seed extracts showed inhibitory activity and hemagglutinating activity. In the simulating gastric fluid condition, hydrolysis products were detected, a 70 kDa band, which does not appear in the control. After the heating treatment, pepsin easily digested the 29 kDa lectin bands and a gradual digestion of the 12 and less than 10 kDa bands, probably the protease inhibitors. In the simulating intestinal fluid evaluation, without heating, the bands of 29, 12, and less than 10 kDa showed resistance to digestion. After heat treatment, the intensity of the corresponding bands 12 and those less than 10 kDa gradually decreased compared to the band of 29 kDa, which was digested quickly. Amaranthus seeds showed antinutritional factors, inhibitors, and lectins, demonstrating that at appropriate treatment and increased temperature it can improve more the efficient activities of digestive enzymes. Therefore, this work shows the importance of cooking for better protein absorption of Amaranthus seeds, making them a good source of amino acids.

In recent decades, heavy metal pollution has become a significant environmental stress factor. Plants are characterized by high biochemical plasticity and can adjust their metabolism to ensure survival under a changing environment. Here we report, to our knowledge, the first gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-based metabolomics study of Zn-induced stress responses in Amaranthus caudatus plants. The study was performed with root and leaf aqueous methanolic extracts after their lyophilization and sequential derivatization with methoxylamine hydrochloride and N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide. In total, 419 derivatives were detected in the samples, and 144 of them could be putatively annotated. The metabolic shifts in seven-week-old A. caudatus plants in response to a seven-day treatment with 300 µmol/L ZnSO4·7H2O in nutrient solution were organ-specific and more pronounced in roots. Most of the responsive metabolites were up-regulated and dominated by sugars and sugar acids. The revealed effects could be attributed to the involvement of these metabolites in osmotic regulation, antioxidant protection and Zn2+ complexation. A 59-fold up-regulation of gluconic acid in roots distinctly indicated enhanced glucose oxidation due to oxidative stress upon the Zn treatment. Gluconic acid might be further employed in Zn2+ complexation. Pronounced Zn-induced up-regulation of salicylic acid in roots and shoots suggested a key role of this hormone in stress signaling and activation of Zn stress tolerance mechanisms. Overall, our study provides the first insight into the general trends of Zn-induced biochemical rearrangements and main adaptive metabolic shifts in A. caudatus.

The current study aims to assess the Conservation Priority Index (CPI) of species, habitats, and communities for their conservation and management planning in the Outer Seraj area of Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. The present study is an attempt to prioritize 154 plant species, 63 plant communities (15 tree communities, 20 shrub communities, and 28 herb communities) spread across an elevation range of 800 to 3200 meters. Of the total number of plant species identified, 17 plant species were assessed to be endangered, 18 vulnerable and 47 plant species were assessed to be near threatened. Based on ecological and socioeconomic criteria, each habitat and community has been assessed. Maximum CPI values were found in Shady moist (54) habitats followed by shrubbery (22), riverine and camping (20 each) hence prioritized for conservation. The remaining habitats showed comparatively low CPI values. Shady Moist Forests exhibited the highest species richness (SR) and total species (TS) count, indicating a diverse ecosystem. Amongst tree communities, Morus alba, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Populus ciliata and Quercus leucotrichophora communities exhibited the maximum CPI values. Among shrub communities, Indigofera heterantha, Murraya koenigii, Rosa macrophylla, Rubus ellipticus, Rubus niveas and Zanthoxylum armatum showed maximum CPI values hence prioritized for conservation. Among herb communities, Acorus calamus, Ajuga bracteosa, Amaranthus caudatus, Asparagus fillicinus, Asparagus officinalis, Boenninghausenia albiflora, Chenopodium album, Hypericum perforatum, Nicitiana tobacum, Solanum nigrum, Thalictrum foliolosum and Trifolium pratense showed maximum CPI values indicated the need for conservation. Different habitats have different percentages of native and endemic species, which emphasizes how crucial some habitats are to the conservation of rare species.

Assessing the efficacy of microbial inoculants and consortia on growth, biomass and yield of Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) crop grown in saline soil of Lucknow

This review is dedicated to exploring recent advancements in the study of amaranth grain and presents research primarily on Amaranthus species such as Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, and Amaranthus caudatus, and to a lesser extent Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus mantegazzianus, Amaranthus muricatus, Amaranthus tuberculatus, Amaranthus viridis, Amaranthus spinosus, and Amaranthus tenuifoliu. Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is a promising, high-yield pseudocereal crop with significant commercial potential for developing functional food products. It contains a wide range of bioactive compounds, including squalene, tocopherols, phenolic compounds, phytates, and vitamins, which possess important physiological properties. Amaranth grain is characterized by high levels of starch, proteins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Moreover, amaranth proteins are distinguished by a balanced amino acid composition and exhibit greater resistance to external factors compared to animal-derived proteins. Grains of amaranth are free of gliadin, making it a valuable nutritional source for individuals with celiac disease, an immune-mediated disorder. Unlike traditional cereals, where prolamins and glutelins dominate the protein composition, the proteins of pseudocereals like amaranth primarily consist of albumins and globulins. The processing methods of amaranth grain influence their quantitative and qualitative composition, often significantly improving their physicochemical, antioxidant, functional, and rheological properties. This work provides a detailed analysis of amaranth's chemical composition and bioactive components, along with its evaluation of therapeutic and preventive properties. Amaranth protein fractions (albumin, globulin, and glutelin) and squalene exhibit increased antioxidant activity, contributing to notable resistance to radiation and X-ray exposure. Bioactive compounds such as phytol, α-tocopherol, and a lunasin-like peptide (AhLun) with potential anticancer properties have also been identified in amaranth. Furthermore, six bioactive peptides were isolated and identified from amaranth, which, according to predictive models, demonstrate a high capacity to inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity, suggesting potential hypotensive effects. Certain amaranth peptides are considered promising functional food ingredients for the prevention and comprehensive treatment of conditions such as diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, hypercholesterolemia, cardiovascular diseases, and obesity. Amaranthus spp. and its processed products hold significant interest for the development of innovative food products, contributing to the expansion of their range and enhancement of nutritional value.

La innovación en panificación busca mejorar el valor nutricional de productos tradicionales como el panetón, de alta demanda en Perú, mediante ingredientes andinos subutilizados. El objetivo del estudio es determinar el impacto de tres niveles de sustitución de harina de kiwicha sobre las características fisicoquímicas y microbiológicas del panetón con aguaymanto deshidratado en el contexto andino peruano. La metodología es de enfoque cuantitativo, se realizó un diseño experimental, elaborando panetones y analizando su composición fisicoquímica, estabilidad microbiológica (45 días), perfil textural (TPA) y aceptabilidad sensorial (n= 44, escala hedónica 1-5). Este estudio evaluó el efecto de sustituir parcialmente harina de trigo por harina de kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) (10%, 15%, 20%) en panetón con aguaymanto (Physalis peruviana L.) deshidratado, para determinar el nivel óptimo que equilibre aceptabilidad sensorial y mejora nutricional. Los resultados evidencian que la sustitución incrementó significativamente proteína, fibra, ceniza y grasa, y redujo humedad y actividad de agua; texturalmente, aumentó la dureza y disminuyó cohesividad y elasticidad. Sensorialmente, la formulación con 15% de kiwicha (T2) obtuvo la mayor aceptabilidad general (3.9±0.7), significativamente superior a las de 10% (T1) y 20% (T3), siendo esta última penalizada en color, olor, suavidad y humedad. El panetón T2 presentó un 48.7% más de proteína, 36.3% más de fibra y 52.3% menos de grasa que un referente comercial, cumpliendo con los límites microbiológicos. Se concluye que la sustitución al 15% con kiwicha es una alternativa viable para obtener un panetón tradicional nutricionalmente mejorado y sensorialmente aceptable en el contexto peruano.

Effect of Popping on the Chemical Composition and Anti-Nutritional Factors of Amaranthus caudatus Grain

Hypertension in pregnancy is a major cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of Amaranthus Caudatus, Cocos Nucifera L, Punica Granatum L, Sechium Edule, Solanum Lycopersicum, Brassica Oleracea L, Moringa Oleifera, Apium Graveolens L, Persea Americana, and Cucumis Melo L in reducing blood pressure in prehypertensive pregnant women in Banten Province. A quasi-experimental design with a pretest and posttest nonequivalent control group approach and total sampling technique was used. The results showed a significant reduction in blood pressure (p<0.05), with Punica Granatum L and Sechium Edule demonstrating a significant difference in effectiveness (p=0.000). This study confirms that non-pharmacological management can be an alternative for lowering blood pressure in prehypertensive pregnant women.

This study examined the impact of varying biochar application rates on soil characteristics and the growth of Amaranthus caudatus in Ghana. Corn cob biochar, produced at a temperature of 550 °C, was applied at different rates (0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 t/ha) in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The findings demonstrated a notable enhancement in soil characteristics as the biochar application rates increased. The soil pH rose from 5.45 in the control group to 6.16 with the application of 7.5 t/ha. The 10 t/ha rate resulted in a significant increase of up to 24.3% in organic carbon content. The 10 t/ha treatment resulted in a 60% rise in total nitrogen, whereas accessible phosphorus exhibited an 80% increase. The water retention ability was significantly enhanced, with the application of 7.5 t/ha resulting in the greatest increase (11.7% compared to 10.8% in the control). Biochar application had a favorable impact on plant growth metrics. The application of 10 t/ha resulted in the highest plant height, measuring 17.17 cm, which is a 100% increase compared to the control group. The 7.5 t/ha treatment had the highest number of leaves, with 11.54 leaves, representing a 15% increase compared to the control. The stem circumference also increased, with the application rate of 7.5 t/ha resulting in the widest stems measuring 21.1 mm. The application of biochar significantly increased the yield of fresh matter in Amaranthus caudatus. The 10 t/ha rate resulted in the highest yield of 1722 kg/ha, closely followed by the 7.5 t/ha rate with a yield of 1676 kg/ha. These rates showed yield increases of 183 and 176% respectively, compared to the control yield of 608 kg/ha. This study showcases the capacity of biochar to enhance soil fertility and increase crop yield in tropical soils when used as a soil supplement. The findings indicate that applying biochar at rates ranging from 7.5 to 10 t/ha could be the most effective in improving soil characteristics and promoting the growth of Amaranthus caudatus in comparable circumstances. The consequences of these discoveries are significant for the sustainable management of soil and the security of food in tropical countries.

Pseudocereals have gained attention due to their adaptability to different climates, high nutritional value, and suitability for gluten-free and plant-based diets. However, a challenge lies in the necessary adaptations in the diet pathways, mainly due to the lack of matrix-matching metrological tools. To address this problem, we developed a classification system to support laboratory decisions without shaped Proficiency Testing (PT) or Certified/Standard References Material. This system evaluates method performance through limit of detection (LOD), maximum uncertainty, and statistical comparison. For that matter, the mineral contents (Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn, Mg, P, Ca, K, and Na) of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) were determined, using three different digestion methods, including dry-ashing, microwave, and graphite block acid digestion. A decision was reached concerning the optimal digestion method to be employed, with the results classified into three categories: (i) "rejected if results failed in two categories; (ii) "use with caution" if results were not satisfactory in one category; or (iii) "accepted", if the results passed in all the categories. The system efficacy was exemplified by the effectiveness of dry-ashing and graphite block acid digestion by comparison with microwave digestion. Neither dry-ashing nor graphite block acid digestion can be recommended as an alternative method to the microwave digestion method when all the prioritized nutrient minerals are understudied. Although the microwave method is preferable for multi-elemental analysis, it is possible to obtain, with caution, comparable results from all the digestion methods if a higher relative combined uncertainty is defined (target uncertainty < 11%) under the assumption that this is suitable for the study.

The evolution of food took place over time, along with the development of agricultural practices. Various species of food grains were identified, which significantly strengthen the food chain. Millets were used as the main ingredients of a daily diet, but over time, their use gradually decreased. Initially, the side effects of modern foods were not felt, but with an increase in lifestyle diseases, humans started realizing the bad effects of modern foods, which forced re-identification, protection, and revival of healthy foods. As a result, the health benefits of millets and other grains were re-identified and re-established. With the above facts, an attempt has been made to compare the nutritional strength of wheat with that of some important millet and other flours, focusing on their potential health benefits. This comparative study dealt with the evaluation of millet and other flours like rajgira or amaranth ramdana (Amaranth - Amaranthus caudatus L.), ragi ;finger millet - Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], jowar (sorghum - Sorghum bicolor L. Syn. Sorghum vulgare), bajra (pearl millet - Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), singhada (chestnut - Trapa natans L.), chawal (rice - Oryza sativa L.), makka (maize – Zea mays L.) and gehu (wheat - Triticum aestivum L.) flour. An attempt has been made for standardization of various flours, primarily as per BIS and FSSAI guidelines, including moisture, pH, total and acid insoluble ash, bulk density, water and oil absorption capacity, swelling and foaming index, foam stability, emulsion stability, and emulsion activity, and a comparative assessment of their nutritional facts like total fat, total carbohydrates, dietary and crude fiber, calories, caffeine, protein, gluten, cholesterol, and sodium energy content, to reach conclusive recommendations. The obtained result revealed millets and rice are equal or high in possessing nutritional values compared to wheat flour and provide a significant contribution to a routine diet as a staple food.

Protease inhibitors are biomolecules with growing biotechnological and biomedical relevance, including those derived from plants. This study investigated strong trypsin inhibitors in quinoa, amaranth, and lupine seeds, plant grains traditionally used in Andean South America. Amaranth seeds displayed the highest trypsin inhibitory activity, despite having the lowest content of aqueous soluble and thermostable protein material. This activity, directly identified by enzymatic assay, HPLC, intensity-fading mass spectrometry (IF-MS), and MS/MS, was attributed to a single protein of 7889.1 Da, identified as identical in Amaranthus caudatus and A. hybridus, with a Ki of 1.2 nM for the canonical bovine trypsin. This form of the inhibitor, which is highly homogeneous and scalable, was selected, purified, and structurally-functionally characterized due to the high nutritional quality of amaranth seeds as well as its promising agriculture-biotech-biomed applicability. The protein was crystallized in complex with bovine trypsin, and its 3D crystal structure resolved at 2.85 Å, revealing a substrate-like transition state interaction. This verified its classification within the potato I inhibitor family. It also evidenced that the single disulfide bond of the inhibitor constrains its binding loop, which is a key feature. Cell culture assays showed that the inhibitor did not affect the growth of distinct plant microbial pathogen models, including diverse bacteria, fungi, and parasite models, such as Mycoplasma genitalium and Plasmodium falciparum. These findings disfavour the notion that the inhibitor plays an antimicrobial role, favouring its potential as an agricultural insect deterrent and prompting a redirection of its functional research.

Assessment of Salt Stress Effects on Antioxidant Levels and Membrane Transport Protein in Amaranthus caudatus

In this study, a series of trial experiments were carried out to determine the optimal extraction parameter ranges for betalains, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants from amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) flowers during the vacuum-microwave extraction (VMAE). VMAE reduces thermal degradation and oxidation risks compared to traditional extraction methods, improving extraction efficiency for thermosensitive and oxygen-sensitive compounds. Since there is no prior study in the literature about optimisation of the extraction conditions of vacuum microwave-assisted extraction of betalains and other bioactive materials in amaranth flowers, this pre-study was essential. The experimental plan was designed according to different ethanol concentrations (20%-40%-60%), extraction periods (5-8-12 min), and pressures (100-450 mmHg). Subsequently, the total betalain content (TBC), total phenolic content (TPC), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) values were measured. The aim was to identify the minimum and optimal conditions for extracting bioactive compounds using the VMAE method for further optimization studies. The experimental results showed that for the maximization of TBC, the conditions were 40% ethanol concentration, 8 min, and 450 mmHg pressure. Conversely, for the maximisation of TPC and TAC, the conditions were 20% ethanol concentration, 12 min, and 450 mmHg pressure. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed to understand the general effects of VMAE on the morphology of the flower samples. These findings provided valuable insights for the future optimisation of extraction processes from amaranth flowers or similar betalain-containing plants using VMAE, contributing to the enhancement of extraction efficiency and the potential utilization of these bioactive compounds in various food applications.

In this study, the effects of different doses of organic (OF), vermicompost (VC), and chemical (CF) fertilizers on phenological characteristics, polyphenolic compounds, and antioxidant capacity of Amaranthus caudatus L. were evaluated. The study was carried out using a randomized block design with four replications. The findings revealed that the fastest germination occurred in the CF-6 L/da group, with a mean time of 7 days, while the slowest germination was observed in the OF-1200 mL/da group, with a mean time of 16 days. Regarding flowering time, the earliest flowering occurred on the 68th day in the CF-3 L/da group, while the latest flowering occurred on the 79th day in the OF-1200 mL/da group. The longest vegetative period was observed in the OF-1200 mL/da group with 215 days due to the effect of fertilizer applications and the fact that the study was carried out in the summer season. The closest vegetative period to the control group was 187-190 days in the CF-6 L/da group. The treatment groups' total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) exhibited a range of 0.29-2.46 mg GAE/g and 0.50-1.26 mg QE/g, respectively. The highest TPC and TFC values among the treatment groups were determined in the OF-300 mL/ha and VC-2 L/ha groups, respectively. The IC50 values of 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of methanol extracts exhibited a range of 3.34 to 6.80 mg/mL, with the OF-300 mL/da (50 mg/mL) group demonstrating the highest radical scavenging activity, exhibiting an 89.95% inhibition rate.

PurposeParathyroid carcinoma (PC) is a rare malignancy with a poor prognosis. Diagnosis of PC is often difficult in clinical practice and efficient diagnostic markers are still needed for differential diagnosis. Aberrant glycosylations of glycoproteins were identified with lectin microarray in various cancers, while relevant information is lacking in PC.MethodsIn this study, 8 PC and 6 parathyroid adenoma (PA) tissues were assessed using a microarray consisting of 70 lectins. Overall lectin-specific glycosylation patterns were compared between PA and PC tissues. Lectins with significant differential response between PC and PA were further validated by lectin histochemistry.ResultsThe difference in signal intensities was found in 71.4% (50/70) of the lectins between the two groups (P < 0.05). The vast majority of PCs had higher intensity signals than PAs (PCs vs. PAs, ratio >1) and amaranthus caudatus (ACL) showed the most significantly different response between them (ratio = 2.45). Lectin histochemistry further confirmed higher ACL intensity in PCs than in PAs. The differentially expressed glycans in PC tissues were primarily glucose, mannose, and galactose-based.ConclusionPC presented unique glycomic features and ACL may serve as a candidate diagnostic marker for PC.