Cockroach Allergen Research Articles

RISK FACTORS FOR INNER CITY ASTHMA PATIENTS

Asthma patients in inner cities have the highest prevalence of asthma and the highest death rates in America. The purpose of this study was to evaluate sensitization and exposure to common indoor allergens seen for asthma treatment at Grady Memorial Hospital, Atlanta, Ga. Eighty asthma patients were enrolled in the emergency department and 64 in hospital clinics in this study. Neither sensitization nor visibility In this population, cat allergens are prevalent. The findings show that black asthma patients are exposed to high levels of mite and cockroach allergens in downtown Atlanta and that a high percentage of patients with asthma are sensitized to these allergens; a significant risk factor for asthma in this population is the combination of sensitization and exposure.
 Keywords: asthma; mechanical ventilation, status asthmaticus , Pathophysiology epidemiology mechanisms.

Changes in Prevalence Patterns of Allergen Sensitization During the COVID-19 Pandemic in South China: A Cross-Sectional Study from 2017 to 2020

Background: Public health measures during COVID-19 have led to an unprecedented change in social lifestyle which might have an impact on the allergen sensitization in population. We sought to explore the prevalence patterns of serum allergen-specific IgE (sIgE) sensitization and serum total immunoglobulin E (tIgE) level among patients with clinical symptoms of suspected allergic diseases before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in south China. Methods: We assessed cross-sectional datasets from the First Affiliated Hospital of the Guangzhou Medical University from 2017 to 2020. Data on clinical symptoms of the patients with suspected allergic diseases in the hospital were collected and data from February to June in each year were extracted. Chi-square test and Fisher exact test were used to test statistical significance among years. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were used to assess the magnitudes of the differences among years. Findings: The number of hospital visits for patients with suspected allergy symptoms decreased compared with previous years during COVID-19. For inhalant allergens, there was a statistically significant difference (PDermatophagoides pteronyssinus, 1·43 (P=0·024) for Dermatophagoides farina, 1·50 (PDermatophagoides pteronyssinus and tIgE were statistically different (PInterpretation: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the positive rate of inhalant allergens and tIgE level increased while the positive rate of food allergens remained stable. Staying at home for a long time without frequent ventilation, insufficient sunshine or storing food at home might contribute to the result. Funding: The Science and Technology Development Fund, Macau SAR and the National Natural Science Foundation of China.Declaration of Interests: We declare no competing interest exists. Ethics Approval Statement: The study was approved by the ethic committee of the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Reference number: GYFYY-2016-73) of Guangzhou Medical University. Written informed consent was obtained from all adults and legal guardians of the participating children.

Cockroach Allergy, Allergen Based Immuno Diagnostic and Specific Immunotherapy: Present Status and Future Trends

Cockroach allergy sensitivity is increasing alarmingly. As in the modern world people choose to stay indoors which increased the inhalation of fine dust emerging from cockroach scales present in air causing the allergy symptoms in sensitive people. The scheme of flats in apartments with long lengthier toilet ducted lines are the sources for cockroach habitat. City apartment buildings are specifically responsible for increased cockroach allergy problem. Cockroach allergen causing allergy has been proclaimed around the world and the most typical cockroaches associated with allergy are the German cockroach Blattella germanica and the American cockroach Periplaneta americana. The secretion and remains of the whole insect are the origin of environmental cockroach allergen. Diagnosis is by specific IgE test followed by Skin Prick Test SPT. Long term management of allergy disorders apart from pharmacotherapy is done by preventive measures and Allergen Specific Immunotherapy ASI in the form of either Subcutaneous Immunotherapy SCIT or by Sublingual Immunotherapy SLIT to reduce the allergy symptoms and enhance Quality of Life as against observed by Pharmacotherapy. In this article present status and future trends on cockroach allergy allergen diagnosis and specific immunotherapy have been reviewed.

Prevalence of allergens of atopic asthma at Square Hospitals Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Asthma is one of the major substantial public health problems, caused by both the genetic and the environmental factors (allergens and air pollution). Here, the prevalence of allergens of atopic asthma was investigated and carried out at Square Hospitals Limited., Dhaka from November 2019 to July 2020. The study group consisted of 168 asthmatic subjects who suffered from asthma. Skin prick test of 56 listed allergens, serum immunoglobulin E level, and clinical history were assessed to investigate the prevalence. The survey depicted an 80% positive reaction to Dermatophagoides farinae and a 71% to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus. For these allergens, a high prevalence was recorded in males (50% and 47.02%) who belonged to the age group of 26 to 45 years (28.57% and 24.40% respectively). Furthermore, the significance of family history of allergy (51.79% and 48.81%) and medication history (41.07% and 39.29%) was found to be substantial for these allergens. Additionally, 57% of respondents were tested positive for dog epithelia and cockroach allergens, 56% for grain (wheat) dust, 44% to mosquito allergen, 42% for house dust and Aspergillus fumigatus, 36% to chicken feather, 35% for pigeon feather, and 6% to latex. Moreover, 80.36% of respondents had elevated serum immunoglobulin E level concerning their ages and 11.90% did not have serum reports. Interestingly, the respondents who had no family history of allergy were found to be more allergic to fungi allergens. Lastly, 39.1% of respondents were allergic to different kinds of foods like aquatic or seafood, animal products, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. Among the respondents, 64.9% reported to have a positive family history. Association and correlation of allergens with different risk factors were analyzed and it was concluded that people predominantly suffered from mite allergens followed by animal dander, insect, dust, fungi and pollen, and a minute amount of latex allergens.

CaMKII oxidation regulates cockroach allergen–induced mitophagy in asthma

Autophagy plays an important role in causing inflammatory responses initiated by environmental pollutants and respiratory tract infection. We sought to investigate the role of cockroach allergen-induced excessive activation of autophagy in allergic airway inflammation and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Environmental allergen-induced autophagy was investigated in the primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) and lung tissues of asthmatic mouse model and patients. The role of autophagy in asthma development was examined by using autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine in an asthma mouse model. Furthermore, the involvements of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidized Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (ox-CaMKII) signaling in regulating autophagy during asthma were examined in allergen-treated HBECs and mouse model. Cockroach allergen activated autophagy in HBECs and in the lung tissues from asthmatic patients and mice. Autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine significantly attenuated airway hyperresponsiveness, TH2-associated lung inflammation, and ROS generation. Mechanistically, we demonstrated a pathological feedforward circuit between cockroach allergen-induced ROS and autophagy that is mediated through CaMKII oxidation. Furthermore, transgenic mice with ROS-resistant CaMKII MM-VVδ showed attenuation of TH2-associated lung inflammation and autophagy. Mitochondrial ox-CaMKII inhibition induced by adenovirus carrying mitochondrial-targeted inhibitor peptide CaMKIIN suppresses cockroach allergen-induced autophagy, mitochondrial dysfunction, mitophagy, and cytokine production in HBECs. Finally, mitochondrial CaMKII inhibition suppressed the expression of one of the key ubiquitin-binding autophagy receptors, optineurin, and its recruitment to fragmented mitochondria. Optineurin knockdown inhibited cockroach allergy-induced mitophagy. Our data suggest a previously uncovered axis of allergen-ROS-ox-CaMKII-mitophagy in the development of allergic airway inflammation and asthma.

Prevalence and clinical characteristics of allergic rhinitis in the elderly Korean population

The proportion of elderly people aged ≥ 65years is increasing worldwide. Although the reported prevalence of sinonasal disease can vary according to the diagnostic methods used, differences in allergic rhinitis prevalence in the elderly according to diagnostic method have not been reported. We thus aimed to evaluate allergic rhinitis prevalence in the elderly according to diagnostic criteria obtained from questionnaires, physician diagnoses, and allergy tests. We compared the allergic rhinitis prevalence in the elderly aged ≥ 65years with adults aged 19-64years, using data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2012. Total serum IgE and IgE levels specific to allergens of Dermatophagoides farina, cockroach, and dog dander were examined, and factors affecting specific IgE levels were investigated. Allergic rhinitis prevalence according to the questionnaire responses, physician diagnoses, and allergy test results was 35.02%, 14.89%, and 17.56%, respectively. The prevalence based on all diagnostic methods assessed was significantly lower in the elderly than in the general adult group (p < 0.001). Rhinorrhea incidence was significantly increased in the elderly (p = 0.018). Sensitization to Dermatophagoides farina was significantly decreased in the elderly (p = 0.006) and did not correlate with socioeconomic status and/or general health factors. The elderly population has a distinct clinical presentation, including a low prevalence of allergic rhinitis, and an increased incidence of rhinorrhea symptoms, compared with the general adult population. The management of allergic rhinitis in elderly patients may therefore require a different therapeutic approach to improve rhinorrhea rather than nasal obstruction.

Lnc-BAZ2B promotes M2 macrophage activation and inflammation in children with asthma through stabilizing BAZ2B pre-mRNA

Dysregulation of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) is associated with a variety of human diseases; however, whether they have a role in childhood asthma is unknown. We sought to determine the differential expression profiles of lncRNAs in PBMCs of children with asthma and the mechanisms underlying the effects of lncRNAs on the pathogenesis of asthma. The differential expression profiles of lncRNAs were analyzed by transcriptome microarray. The effects and mechanisms by which lncRNAs influence macrophage activation were detected by real-time quantitative PCR, Western blot, RNase protection assay, and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. The roles played by lncRNAs in asthma were tested in a cockroach allergen extract (CRE)-induced mouse model. We identified 719 lncRNAs that were differentially expressed in PBMCs of children with asthma, 502 of which were upregulated and 217 were downregulated. An lncRNA of unknown function, lnc-BAZ2B, was dominantly expressed in monocytes and significantly upregulated in children with asthma. lnc-BAZ2B promotes M2 macrophage activation by enhancing BAZ2B expression and exacerbated lung inflammation in an M2 macrophage-associated CRE-induced asthma model. Mechanistically, lnc-BAZ2B promoted the expression of its cis target gene BAZ2B by stabilizing its pre-mRNA. BAZ2B, a reader of H3K14ac modification, enhanced the transcription of IRF4 and promoted M2 macrophage activation. lnc-BAZ2B expression was correlated with that of BAZ2B in PBMCs from children with asthma. Baz2b knockdown could alleviate asthma severity in a CRE-induced asthma model. lnc-BAZ2B promotes M2 macrophage activation and inflammation in children with asthma and may serve as a potential therapeutic and diagnostic target in children with asthma.

Abatement of cockroach allergens by effective cockroach management in apartments

Abatement of cockroach allergens by effective cockroach management in apartments

Measurement of German cockroach allergens and their isoforms in allergen extracts with mass spectrometry.

Allergen extracts are the primary tool for diagnosis and treatment of allergic diseases. In the United States, most allergen extracts are non-standardized. More sophisticated analytical approaches are needed to characterize these products and enable manufacturers and regulators to better determine potency. To expand the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) assay for an in-depth characterization of German cockroach (GCr; Blattella germanica) allergen extracts. We applied advanced liquid chromatography (LC) and mass spectrometry (MS) techniques including MRM. The expanded LC/MRM-MS method was optimized to measure known GCr allergens and their isoforms/variants in commercial extracts and environmental samples. We performed isoform-specific allergen measurements in multiple extracts from four commercial sources and extracts prepared using environmental samples from urban homes. To investigate causes of heterogeneity, we examined over 30 extraction process variables. Evaluation of the commercial extracts confirmed the variability of production lots and commercial sources. Commonly used defatting and extraction protocols yielded extracts with comparable allergen profiles and content. However, the identity and quality of source materials was a major contributor to variability. In comparing commercial GCr extracts to environmental samples, relative quantities of Bla g 1, Bla g 2, Bla g 3, Bla g 4 and Bla g 11 were similar, while Bla g 5, Bla g 6, Bla g 7 and Bla g 8 were present in the environmental samples but largely absent for the commercial extracts. LC/MRM-MS can be used to measure all known GCr allergens in commercial allergen extracts and environmental samples. Significant differences exist between allergen profiles of commercial extracts and the profiles of environmental samples from dwellings. This analytical platform can serve as a template to achieve better product characterization of similarly complex products.

Inhibition of uric acid or IL-1β ameliorates respiratory syncytial virus immunopathology and development of asthma.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) affects most infants early in life and is associated with increased asthma risk. The specific mechanism remains unknown. To investigate the role of uric acid (UA) and IL-1β in RSV immunopathology and asthma predisposition. Tracheal aspirates from human infants with and without RSV were collected and analyzed for pro-IL-1β mRNA and protein to establish a correlation in human disease. Neonatal mouse models of RSV were employed, wherein mice infected at 6-7days of life were analyzed at 8days postinfection, 5weeks postinfection, or after a chronic cockroach allergen asthma model. A xanthine oxidase inhibitor or IL-1 receptor antagonist was administered during RSV infection. Human tracheal aspirates from RSV-infected infants showed elevated pro-IL-1β mRNA and protein. Inhibition of UA or IL-1β during neonatal murine RSV infection decreased mucus production, reduced cellular infiltrates to the lung (especially ILC2s), and decreased type 2 immune responses. Inhibition of either UA or IL-1β during RSV infection led to chronic reductions in pulmonary immune cell composition and reduced type 2 immune responses and reduced similar responses after challenge with cockroach antigen. Inhibiting UA and IL-1β during RSV infection ameliorates RSV immunopathology, reduces the consequences of allergen-induced asthma, and presents new therapeutic targets to reduce early-life viral-induced asthma development.

Material Hardship and Indoor Allergen Exposure among Low-Income, Urban, Minority Children with Persistent Asthma.

Traditional measures of socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with asthma morbidity, but their specific contributions are unclear. Increased exposure to indoor allergens among low SES children is an important consideration. Material hardship, a concept describing poor access to basic goods and services, may explain the relationship between low SES and indoor allergen exposure, and thereby, the increased risk of asthma morbidity. We sought to (i) describe the specific hardships experienced by low-Income, urban, minority children with asthma and indoor allergen sensitization and (ii) determine if material hardship is associated with indoor allergen exposure in this population. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of children undergoing the baseline assessment for a clinical trial of home environmental modification. Participants were scored in five domains of material hardship. Domain scores were assigned based on caregiver responses to a questionnaire and were summed to generate a total material hardship score. Linear regression was used to examine the relationship between material hardship scores and bedroom floor concentrations of five common indoor allergens. Participants experienced high levels of material hardship in each of the five domains, with 33% not having access to a car, 35% not being able to pay utility bills, and 28% not being able to pay rent in the past year. Each one-point increase in material hardship was associated with an increase in cockroach allergen of 16.2% (95% CI 9.4%, 24.6%) and an increase in mouse allergen of 9.4% (95% CI 1.0%, 18.5%). After adjusting for traditional measures of SES, including household income, health insurance type, caregiver education, and caregiver employment status, the association between material hardship and cockroach allergen, but not mouse allergen, remained. These data suggest that a significant proportion of families of low-income, minority children with asthma may experience material hardship, and that they may be at greater risk of cockroach allergen exposure than their peers with similar income, but without material hardship.

Effects of educational efforts in tribal homes and schools to reduce asthma triggers, symptoms and missed school days.

Native American asthma prevalence has been estimated higher than for the U.S. population average, and uncontrolled asthma results in absence from schools. This study analyzed effects of targeted education campaigns in both homes and schools on reducing asthma triggers and symptoms among 119 children with asthma, who were recruited from Cherokee and Nez Perce communities. The education campaigns were developed in collaboration with the researchers and the tribes, tailoring strategies to reduce asthma triggers adapted to tribal lifestyles. There was a special emphasis in identification of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) aspects, which were woven into the study plan and implementation. Some 62 study homes were investigated and the parents received targeted education at the beginning of the study, whereas the remaining control homes received the same education at the end of the study. In Cherokee homes, allergen levels were significantly increased in both control and study groups throughout the study. In Nez Perce homes, dog and cockroach allergen levels decreased significantly in the study homes. The parents reported asthma control test (ACT) scores of the children were significantly improved in both study and control groups, whereas respiratory illness days were reduced in the study group. In schools, allergen levels, particularly cat, dog and cockroach allergens, increased throughout the year in both study and control schools. However, high contact surface cleaning effectiveness based on adenosine tri phosphate (ATP) readings was improved in the study schools. It was also found that high contact surface cleaning effectiveness may have effects on students' absence rates tracked by schools. In conclusion, the results indicate partial improvements in parent reported health symptoms, although the improvements could not be definitively attributed to reduction of any specific exposure in the home environment. In the school environment, effective cleaning throughout the flu season could result in decreased absence rates.

Endotoxin clustering with allergens in house dust and asthma outcomes in a U.S. national study

BackgroundEndotoxin is ubiquitous in the environment, but its clustering with indoor allergens is not well characterized. This study examined the clustering patterns of endotoxin with allergens in house dust and their association with asthma outcomes.MethodsWe analyzed data from 6963 participants of the 2005–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. House dust sampled from bedroom floor and bedding was evaluated for endotoxin and allergens from fungi, cockroach, dog, cat, mites, and rodents. Two-step cluster analysis and logistic regressions were performed to identify the clustering patterns and their associations with current asthma and wheeze in the past 12 months, adjusting for covariates.ResultsOf the homes, 17.8% had low endotoxin and allergen levels in house dust (Cluster 1). High endotoxin level clustered with Alternaria and pet allergens in the homes of participants with a high socioeconomic status who own pets (Cluster 2) (48.9%). High endotoxin clustered with Aspergillus, dust mites, cockroach, and rodent allergens in the homes of participants with low socioeconomic status (Cluster 3) (33.3%). Compared to Cluster 1, Cluster 2 was associated with higher asthma prevalence (OR 1.42, 95% CI: 1.06–1.91) and wheeze (OR 1.32, 95% CI: 1.07–1.63). Cluster 3 was positively associated with wheeze only in participants sensitized to inhalant allergens (OR 1.42, 95% CI: 1.06–1.91) or exposed to tobacco smoke (OR 1.72, 95% CI: 1.15–2.60).ConclusionsThe clustering of endotoxin with allergens in dust from homes with pets or of people with low socioeconomic status is associated with asthma and wheeze.

Cockroaches: Allergens, Component-Resolved Diagnosis (CRD) and Component-Resolved Immunotherapy.

Allergic diseases are assuming increasing trend of prevalence worldwide. The diseases confer increasing demand on medical and healthcare facilities. Patients with allergies have poor quality of life and impaired cognition. Adult patients have subpar working efficiency while afflicted children are less effective at school, often have school absenteeism and need more attention of their caregivers. All of them lead to negative socio-economic impact. This narrative review focuses on cockroach allergy including currently recognized cockroach allergens, pathogenic mechanisms of allergy, componentresolved diagnosis and allergen-specific immunotherapy, particularly the component-resolved immunotherapy and the molecular mechanisms that bring about resolution of the chronic airway inflammation.

Association between serum immunoglobulin E levels and knee osteoarthritis in Korean adults

The objective of this study was to examine whether osteoarthritis (OA) in the knees was associated with total immunoglobulin E (IgE), allergen-specific IgE, or allergic sensitizations in a nationally representative population. The study population comprised of 785 adults aged 50 years or more in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010. OA was diagnosed as radiographic (rOA) and symptomatic osteoarthritis (sxOA). We performed multivariable logistic regression analyses to investigate relationships of OA in a knee with serum total IgE, allergen (Dermatophagoides farinae, cockroach, and dog allergens)-specific IgE, and allergic sensitizations. Participants with the highest tertile of the total IgE had 92% and 242% increased risk of knee rOA and sxOA, respectively. Those with D.farinae-specific IgE had 2.2 times increased risk of knee sxOA compared to the lowest tertile. Participants with high total IgE (>150kU/L) had a 60% increased risk of knee rOA. Those with D.farinae-specific sensitization (>0.35kU/L) had 2.0 times increased risk of knee sxOA in compared to those without sensitization. Population-attributable fractions of knee rOA caused by high total IgE and knee sxOA caused by D.farinae-specific sensitization were 9.8% and 15.3%, respectively. Total IgE and D.farinae-specific IgE were significantly associated with OA in knees of Korean adults. High total IgE and D.farinae-specific sensitization were also associated with their OA.

Antigenic cross-reactivity between Schistosoma mansoni and allergenic invertebrates putatively due to shared glycanic epitopes

Previous studies have shown that rabbit IgG antibodies against Schistosoma mansoni egg antigens (SmSEA) cross-react with allergens in natural rubber latex, peanuts and grass and tree pollens. Here we describe antigenic molecules that cross-react with rabbit anti-S. mansoni IgG antibodies in extracts of the house dust mite (HDM) Dermatophagoides farinae, the Australian cockroach (ACR) Periplaneta australasiae and in the venom of the honey bee Apis mellifera (HBV). Tandem mass spectrometry identified the cross-reactive allergens as Der f 15 in HDM, two homologues of the Periplaneta americana cockroach allergen Cr-PI/Per a 3 in ACR and two isoforms of the allergen Api m 1 (phospholipase A2: PLA2) in HBV. Cross-reactive rabbit anti-SmSEA IgG antibodies eluted from the three invertebrate allergens reacted with S. mansoni egg antigens and variably with schistosome cercarial and worm antigens. Treatment of the electroblotted allergens with sodium metaperiodate abrogated most of the cross-reactivity of the rabbit anti-SmSEA antibodies, suggesting it was due to cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCDs). Furthermore, analyses of the allergens’ amino acid sequences indicated that they had potential for both N- and O-linked glycosylation. A potential role for the CCDs shared by the schistosome and invertebrates in inducing an allergy-protective effect, as proposed by the hygiene hypothesis, is discussed.

Maternal Education and Cockroach Sensitization in Asthmatic Children

Environmental allergies are a trigger for allergic asthma. Sensitization to pests, such as cockroach, is associated with more acute asthma visits. Our goal was to evaluate how various social determinants of health, particularly maternal education, were associated with sensitization to pests in asthmatic children. Children’s Mercy Kansas City’s environmental health department collected data during home assessments for families with asthmatic children. Demographics collected included household income, maternal education, and type of insurance. Maternal education level was categorized as less than high school, high school, college, and graduate. A Tobit regression model was developed that left-censored patients with IgE values <0.35 ku/L, which was the lowest limit of detection. For this model, the dependent variable, German cockroach IgE, was used to measure sensitization to pests. Independent variables included income, mother’s education, insurance, and home allergen levels for Alternaria, cockroach, and mouse. In our dataset, 167 participating families had maternal education level and German cockroach IgE values. Detectable cockroach and mouse allergen levels were in 69 homes. German cockroach IgE values ranged from 0.42 to 26.4 ku/L. For each increase in maternal education level, the expected German cockroach IgE was 3.38 ku/L lower than values from homes with less maternal education, holding all other variables constant (p=0.024). Cockroach sensitization was seen to a greater degree for homes with lower reported maternal education level. This data suggests an association between the home environment and maternal education level, which may impact the health of asthmatic children. Larger prospective studies minimizing study dropouts are warranted.

New German cockroach allergens contribute to IgE and T cell reactivity

New German cockroach allergens contribute to IgE and T cell reactivity

Hydrophobic ligands influence the structure, stability, and processing of the major cockroach allergen Bla g 1

The cockroach allergen Bla g 1 forms a novel fold consisting of 12 amphipathic alpha-helices enclosing an exceptionally large hydrophobic cavity which was previously demonstrated to bind a variety of lipids. Since lipid-dependent immunoactivity is observed in numerous allergens, understanding the structural basis of this interaction could yield insights into the molecular determinants of allergenicity. Here, we report atomic modelling of Bla g 1 bound to both fatty-acid and phospholipids ligands, with 8 acyl chains suggested to represent full stoichiometric binding. This unusually high occupancy was verified experimentally, though both modelling and circular dichroism indicate that the general alpha-helical structure is maintained regardless of cargo loading. Fatty-acid cargoes significantly enhanced thermostability while inhibiting cleavage by cathepsin S, an endosomal protease essential for antigen processing and presentation; the latter of which was found to correlate to a decreased production of known T-cell epitopes. Both effects were strongly dependent on acyl chain length, with 18–20 carbons providing the maximal increase in melting temperature (~20 °C) while completely abolishing proteolysis. Diacyl chain cargoes provided similar enhancements to thermostability, but yielded reduced levels of proteolytic resistance. This study describes how the biophysical properties of Bla g 1 ligand binding and digestion may relate to antigen processing, with potential downstream implications for immunogenicity.

Environmental Exposures and Asthma Development: Autophagy, Mitophagy, and Cellular Senescence.

Environmental pollutants and allergens induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to key features of allergic asthma. Dysregulations in autophagy, mitophagy, and cellular senescence have been associated with environmental pollutant and allergen-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, secretion of multiple inflammatory proteins, and subsequently development of asthma. Particularly, particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) has been reported to induce autophagy in the bronchial epithelial cells through activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), drive mitophagy through activating PTEN-induced kinase 1(PINK1)/Parkin pathway, and induce cell cycle arrest and senescence. Intriguingly, allergens, including ovalbumin (OVA), Alternaria alternata, and cockroach allergen, have also been shown to induce autophagy through activation of different signaling pathways. Additionally, mitochondrial dysfunction can induce cell senescence due to excessive ROS production, which affects airway diseases. Although autophagy and senescence share similar properties, recent studies suggest that autophagy can either accelerate the development of senescence or prevent senescence. Thus, in this review, we evaluated the literature regarding the basic cellular processes, including autophagy, mitophagy, and cellular senescence, explored their molecular mechanisms in the regulation of the initiation and downstream signaling. Especially, we highlighted their involvement in environmental pollutant/allergen-induced major phenotypic changes of asthma such as airway inflammation and remodeling and reviewed novel and critical research areas for future studies. Ultimately, understanding the regulatory mechanisms of autophagy, mitophagy, and cellular senescence may allow for the development of new therapeutic targets for asthma.