Alectoris Chukar Research Articles

Migratory status of the goral, Naemorhedus goral (Hardwicke) (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) in Kohistan, Pakistan

The Himalayan goral, Naemorhedus goral (Hardwicke) (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) is classified as endangered internationally and vulnerable in Pakistan. Its migratory status was determined from 24thMay to 10th July, 2010 in the Pattan and Keyal Valleys, Kohistan, Pakistan. The 165 questionnaires were filled in 15 study sites (Pattan, eight study sites; Keyal, seven study sites). It is very common in the two valleys and almost everyone has seen it more often. In both Pattan and Keyal valleys, N. goralmigrates during winter season to lower areas (populated areas), in search of food and water, due to cold temperature and threats from predators and hunters. If it migrates due to predators and hunters, then it will never return to its native habitat. Its main predators are wolf, jackal and others; its hunter is man. Its life-span is 10 to 20 years. It gives birth throughout the year. Some others wildlife, such as sparrow, Passer domesticus Linnaeus, chukor, Alectoris chukar (Gray); koklass pheasant, Pucrasia macrolopha (Lesson), jackal, Canis aureus Linnaeus, monkey, Macaca mulatta Zimmermann andwolf, Canis lupus Linnaeus etc. were also found during the present survey. Its native habitat and migratory areas should be protected. Key words: Keyal valley, Kohistan, migration, Naemorhedus goral, native habitat, Pattan valleys, vantage point.

Effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of a prebiotic on performance of partridge. The experiment was carried out with a total of eighty-day-old male Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar chukar) chicks in a completely randomized design. The dietary treatments consisted of a control and an experimental treatment, and each treatment was replicated four times with 10 chicks per replicate. The experimental period lasted 16 weeks with a starter period (0-8 weeks) and a grower period (9-16 weeks). The control group was fed the basal diet, while the experimental group was fed the basal diet supplemented with 0.18% prebiotic Aspergillus meal in each period. Performance parameters included body weight gain, cumulative feed consumption and cumulative FCR and were recorded at biweekly intervals. Carcass characteristics and blood parameters were measured at the end of the experiment (week 16). Although the results showed that prebiotic had no significant effect on body weight gain and cumulative feed conversion ratio; however, the supplementation of Aspergillus meal significantly (p < 0.05) decreased cumulative feed consumption. Also prebiotic significantly increased percentages of breast and gastrointestinal tract, decreased percentage of back-neck, decreased blood triglyceride and total cholesterol content and increased blood calcium content. From this study, it was concluded that dietary supplementation of 0.18% Aspergillus meal might offer beneficial effects on partridge feed consumption, carcass quality and blood cholesterol.

Population structure and demographic history of the chukar partridge Alectoris chukar in China

Abstract Pleistocene climate fluctuations have shaped the patterns of genetic diversity observed in extant species. Although the effects of recent glacial cycles on genetic diversity have been well studied on species in Europe and North America, genetic legacy of species in the Pleistocene in north and northwest of China where glaciations was not synchronous with the ice sheet development in the Northern Hemisphere or or had little or no ice cover during the glaciations’ period, remains poorly understood. Here we used phylogeographic methods to investigate the genetic structure and population history of the chukar partridge Alec-toris chukar in north and northwest China. A 1,152 – 1,154 bp portion of the mtDNA CR were sequenced for all 279 specimens and a total number of 91 haplotypes were defined by 113 variable sites. High levels of gene flow were found and gene flow estimates were greater than 1 for most population pairs in our study. The AMOVA analysis showed that 81% and 16% of the total genetic variability was found within populations and among populations within groups, respectively. The demographic history of chukar was examined using neutrality tests and mismatch distribution analyses and results indicated Late Pleistocene population expansion. Results revealed that most populations of chukar experienced population expansion during 0.027 ? 0.06 Ma. These results are at odds with the results found in Europe and North America, where population expansions occurred after Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 0.023 to 0.018 Ma). Our results are not consistent with the results from avian species of Tibetan Plateau, either, where species experienced population expansion following the retreat of the extensive glaciation period (0.5 to 0.175 Ma).

Mycoplasma gallisepticum strains with identical random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) patterns in chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and broilers: a case report

We used the random amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) technique to discriminate the major emerging poultry pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), in broiler and chukar partridge cases referred to the veterinary medicine teaching hospital. Amazingly, the chickens and partridges random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) patterns were similar. This suggests the risk of a common source for the strains isolated from the different animals and illustrates the necessity of novel and improved control programs to prevent and restrict this significant disease which is prevalent among poultry species. &amp;nbsp;

Three-dimensional, high-resolution skeletal kinematics of the avian wing and shoulder during ascending flapping flight and uphill flap-running.

Past studies have shown that birds use their wings not only for flight, but also when ascending steep inclines. Uphill flap-running or wing-assisted incline running (WAIR) is used by both flight-incapable fledglings and flight-capable adults to retreat to an elevated refuge. Despite the broadly varying direction of travel during WAIR, level, and descending flight, recent studies have found that the basic wing path remains relatively invariant with reference to gravity. If so, joints undergo disparate motions to maintain a consistent wing path during those specific flapping modes. The underlying skeletal motions, however, are masked by feathers and skin. To improve our understanding of the form-functional relationship of the skeletal apparatus and joint morphology with a corresponding locomotor behavior, we used XROMM (X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology) to quantify 3-D skeletal kinematics in chukars (Alectoris chukar) during WAIR (ascending with legs and wings) and ascending flight (AF, ascending with wings only) along comparable trajectories. Evidence here from the wing joints demonstrates that the glenohumeral joint controls the vast majority of wing movements. More distal joints are primarily involved in modifying wing shape. All bones are in relatively similar orientations at the top of upstroke during both behaviors, but then diverge through downstroke. Total excursion of the wing is much smaller during WAIR and the tip of the manus follows a more vertical path. The WAIR stroke appears “truncated” relative to ascending flight, primarily stemming from ca. 50% reduction in humeral depression. Additionally, the elbow and wrist exhibit reduced ranges of angular excursions during WAIR. The glenohumeral joint moves in a pattern congruent with being constrained by the acrocoracohumeral ligament. Finally, we found pronounced lateral bending of the furcula during the wingbeat cycle during ascending flight only, though the phasic pattern in chukars is opposite of that observed in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).

THE DIET OF VARANUS GRISEUS IN THE SOUTHERN COASTAL PLAIN OF ISRAEL (REPTILIA: SAURIA)

ABSTRACT Fecal pellets were collected and analyzed microscopically during a two-year study of the desert monitor (Varanus griseus) in a sand-dune area south of Holon. V. griseus was found to be a predator-scavenger carnivore type, eating almost any animal of appropriate size. Although 92.2% of the fecal pellets contained invertebrates (mainly arthropods), the higher frequency of occurrence of the smaller species among the invertebrates is probably due to secondary predation. The main prey items included rodents (mostly gerbils, Gerbillus sp., and jirds, Meriones sp.), bird eggs (presumably chukar partridge, Alectoris chukar eggs), birds (mainly partridge chicks), skinks (Chalcides sp.), fringe-toed lizards (Acanthodactylus sp.), chameleons (Chamaeleo chamaeleon), elegant geckos (Stenodactylus sthenodactylus), tortoises (Testudo graeca) and snakes (including the venomous Vipera xanthina palaestinae). Less frequent were: hedgehogs (Hemiechinus auritus), leverets (Lepus europaeus), Sanis pygmy shrew (Suncus ...

Pathogenesis of H9N2 virus in Chukar partridges

Low-pathogenic avian influenza virus (H9N2) is circulating in the poultry industry of many countries in the Middle East and Asia, causing serious economic damage. In this study the clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and efficacy of oil emulsion vaccines in Chukar partridges were investigated until 9 days post inoculation (d.p.i.). Seventy-five Chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) were divided randomly in three groups of challenged (Group C), vaccinated and challenged (Group VC) and control (non-vaccinated and non-challenged [Group NC]), 25 birds/group. Groups C and VC were inoculated with 0.4 ml allantoic fluid containing 107 median embryo infective dose/bird of A/Chicken/Iran/772/1998(H9N2) avian influenza virus. Clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and vaccine efficacy were evaluated and compared among these groups over 9 days. Clinical signs such as coughing and sneezing with depression and decreased feed and water consumption were observed in Group C. In Group VC only a slight decrease in food and water consumption was observed. Both Groups C and VC showed maximum antibody titre at 9 d.p.i. At 1 d.p.i. the virus was detected from all tissues in challenged group, but the virus was not detected from the spleen and caecal tonsil of Group VC. Group C showed the longest period of viral shedding in the trachea and kidney.

NESTING AND BROOD PRODUCTION IN AN ISRAELI POPULATION OF CHUKARS, ALECTORIS CHUKAR (AVES: PHASIANIDAE)

ABSTRACT Aspects of breeding in a chukar population (Alectoris chukar cypriotes) were studied in a Mediterranean biome in the Lower Galilee of Israel for a period of 2 years. Back-dating broods indicated that successful nesting, from laying to hatching, lasted up to 17½ weeks from mid-March to July. Most nests were in clumps of globe thistle on gentle terrain. More than 60% of nests were abandoned or destroyed and re-nesting was common. Complete clutches in 22 out of 40 nests found during the study averaged 12.2 ± 3.0 eggs. Egg laying occurred at 1.14 d/egg, and an incubation period of 26 d was indicated. One instance of possible male incubation was observed. Newly hatched chicks were accompanied by hens that were often hostile to alien broods; but many broods merged or were joined by other adults when the chicks were older.

Phenotypic differences in body size, body condition and circulating carotenoids between hybrid and “pure” red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) in the wild

In the last decades, the release of large numbers of farmed-reared birds became a widespread management practice for game species. The red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is a quarry species with a high economic impact in rural areas of southwest Europe. In order to increase productivity and produce heavier birds, farmed red-legged partridges have often been hybridized with Chukar partridges (A. chukar), although these species have allopatric distribution ranges. During restocking, hybrid birds may be released into wild populations and may subsequently successfully breed, thus threatening the genetic integrity of native A. rufa populations. In this study, we compared several phenotypic indicators (body size, body condition and physiological state) between “pure” and hybrid partridges in order to evaluate the possible consequences of A. chukar genetic introgression into A. rufa. For this purpose, we captured 115 wild red-legged partridges during the breeding seasons 2003–2005 in four game estates of central Spain. We observed a greater occurrence of hybrid A. rufa × A. chukar partridges nearby the sites where the release of farmed-birds took place. We also found that hybrid males were smaller and hybrid females had better body condition and lower plasma carotenoid concentration than pure partridges of the same sex. Low carotenoid levels in blood plasma might be a limitation for female reproduction (fewer carotenoids available for ornamentation or to allocate to eggs). Overall, our results showed a greater occurrence of hybrids near restocking areas and phenotypic differences between hybrids and “pure” partridge in the wild. Genetic controls of farm-reared partridges should be a key step to prevent the releases of hybrids and ensure the maintenance of the genetic integrity of wild red-legged partridge populations.

Parasitosis of the Chukar Partridge, Alectoris chukar in North Iraq

The aim of this study was to establish the identity of the parasitic communities of the chukar partridge from Iraq as well as reporting on the prevalence and intensity of various infections from several localities and comprising both sexes. Twenty-nine live adult chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) were obtained from several localities across the northern provinces of Iraq. Blood samples were examined for haemoprotozoa, carcasses were assessed for the ectoparasites throughout the body skins and feathers, and the alimentary canal was examined for protozoans and helminths. All of the examined animals were infected with the 18 different endo- and ectoparasite species identified. These include 2 protozoans, 3 cestodes, 2 nematodes, and 11 arthropods. The overall figures suggest no significant differences in infection indices in terms of the host's sexuality. Pathogenicity of the parasites involved is briefly emphasised. Furthermore, the role of the chukar in the dissemination of these disease agents among populations of other avian species is discussed. With the exception of C. latiproglottina, all of the species differentiated represent new records for chukar from Iraq, and the 2 coccidians are new addenda to the country parasitological list.

Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers evidence a different pattern of hybridization in red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) populations from NW Italy

Genetic introgression with exotic genomes represents a major conservation concern for the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae). In particular, massive releases of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and/or red-legged × chukar partridge hybrids for hunting purposes have cast serious doubts on the Italian present-day occurrence of wild A. rufa populations not affected by introgressive hybridization. This study investigates the genetic structure of red-legged partridges populations in two ecologically different areas in Northern Italy. Analysis of maternal mitochondrial DNA and biparental microsatellite markers excluded the presence of hybridization in a typical agricultural habitat where hunting and release of reared birds are strictly banned. By contrast, signs of chukar introgression were detected in a perifluvial habitat unusual for the red-legged partridge in Italy. The present study documents the first red-legged partridge population with no genetic evidences of recent chukar introgression presently living in Italy. We recommend that urgent conservation actions are taken to preserve the genetic integrity of this population from the risk of hybridization with farm-reared birds and to support its long-term conservation.

Histology of Extrahepatic Bile Ducts in the Iranian Chukar Partridge (Alectoris Chukar)

Histology of Extrahepatic Bile Ducts in the Iranian Chukar Partridge (Alectoris Chukar)

Impact of fencing on the conservation of wildlife habitat in a sub-mountainous open scrub forest

In Pakistan, Lehri/Jindi evergreen open scrub forest is a characteristic habitat of critically or locally endangered species including Punjab urial (Ovis vignei punjabiensis) and leopard (Panthera pardus), and the important game species desert hare (Lepus nigricollis), black francolin (Francolinus francolinus), grey francolin (Francolinus pondicerianus), see–see partridge (Ammoperdix griseogularis) and chukor partridge (Alectoris chukar). Four separate fenced enclosures were established to maintain captive Punjab urial population in a semi-wild state. Vegetation surveys were conducted through permanently laid quadrats to explore its impact on native flora in 1987–1992 before the fencing was installed and then 2003–2007 over a decade after the fencing was installed.

Comparison of the Metal Concentrations in the Feathers of Three Bird Species from Southern Iran

This study was conducted to determine the concentration of metals, namely cadmium, lead, cobalt and copper, in the feathers of chukar (Alectoris chukar), see-see partridge (Ammoperdix griseogularis) and rock dove (Columba livia) in order to: examine the species, gender and age related variations in trace metal accumulation, and identify any relationships between species. Bird samples were collected in February 2012 from the Hormod protected area, southern Iran and the concentration of metals were measured using a Shimadzu AA 660 flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The concentrations in all three species were copper > lead > cadmium > cobalt. The average cadmium concentrations were 2.0, 1.9, and 1.9 μg/g for A. chukar, A. griseogularis, and C. livia, respectively. The average lead concentrations were 8.0, 5.4, and 7.7 μg/g for A. chukar, A. griseogularis, and C. livia, respectively. The results showed that in all three species, the highest metal concentrations were observed in female/adult birds and the lowest concentrations were found in female/juvenile birds (except lead in A. chukar and copper in C. livia).

Anatomical and histological structure of the tongue and histochemical characteristics of the lingual salivary glands in the Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar, Gray 1830)

1. The aim of the study was to examine the morphology of the tongue and the histochemical features of the lingual salivary glands in this species. 2. The tongue was elongated, terminating in a rather sharp, dagger-like apex. On the surface of the tongue and situated between the body and root of the tongue, two rows of conical papillae, the sharp apices of which pointed towards the posterior part of the tongue, were observed. The keratinised epithelium lining the dorsal surface lacked typical gustatory papillae. However, it was observed that taste buds were present in the epithelium of the lingual body and root. The tongue was supported by a structure composed of hyaline cartilage, the paraglossum, which extended from the lingual root to the apex. Simple branched tubular glands, which were encapsulated by connective tissue, were embedded within the submucosa in the body (anterior salivary glands) and root (posterior salivary glands) of the tongue. It was observed that the secretion of the lingual glands contained neutral mucins, proteoglycans containing carboxylic acid, weak and strong sulphated groups, N-acetylated sialomucins, but lacked glycogen. 3. It was demonstrated that, the general morphological features, papillary distribution of the tongue and the histological structure of the mucosa epithelium and the supportive elements displayed similarity to those of other domestic avian species. It was also determined that, in view of the particular feeding types, in the partridge, the presence of the papillary crest was not correlated with diet.

Histomorphological structure of the palate and histochemical profiles of the salivary palatine glands in the Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar, Gray 1830)

AbstractMorphology of the palatine mucosa and its secretion was described in Chukar partridges, by gross morphology and histochemistry techniques. For this purpose, 10 healthy adults (five male and five female) were sacrificed. After sacrifice, the palatine tissues were extirpated and fixed in 10% formol‐alcohol for 18 h and were embedded longitudinally and transversally in paraffin. The 5‐μm sections were employed histological and histochemical staining techniques. The lateral rims of the caudal part of the choanal cleft were bordered by large conical papillae. In the periphery of the choanal and the infundibular cleft, small papillae were scattered across the palatine mucosa. The palate was lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, which contained conical papillae of varying height. However, the folds of the keratinized stratified squamous epithelial layer covering the choanal and infundibular cleft were nonkeratinized. The rostral aspect of the choanal cleft contained simple branched tubulo‐alveolar glands of both mucous and sero‐mucous characteristic, whilst the caudal aspect included mucous simple branched tubular glands. Furthermore, it was ascertained that the secretion of the palatine glands contained glycoproteins, carboxylated proteoglycans, weakly and strongly sulphated mucins, sialic acid and hyaluronic acid, but lacked glycogen. In conclusion, it was demonstrated that the histological structure of the mucosal epithelium and the supporting elements displayed similarity to those of other domestic avian species.

Growth and development of chicks of two species of partridge: the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and the chukar (Alectoris chukar)

1. In two partridge species, the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and chukar (Alectoris chukar), from hatching up to 120 d, the growth rate and development of body mass, wing, tarsus, and bill length were measured and fitted by Gompertz equations. 2. As a typical precocial species, partridges hatched with relatively well developed legs and bills, and wing growth followed a gradual development of thermoregulation. 3. Gompertz growth constants for body mass growth were 0·039 and 0·038 for grey partridges and chukars, respectively. 4. The allometric relationship between tarsus length and body mass followed a geometric similarity (1/3 power) in both grey partridges and chukars.

Nutritional value of breast and thigh muscle of chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) under intensive fattening conditions

The aim of our study was to evaluate the nutritional value of the breast and thigh muscle of chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) under intensive fattening conditions. Commercial feeding mixtures for broilers were used. Live weight of 60 partridges (birds were not sexed) was controlled during 90 days of fattening. After the fattening was finished, 30 birds were selected to monitor the carcass yield. Breast and thigh muscle were used for chemical analysis of crude protein (Kjeldahl method), total lipids (fat analyser ANKOMXT10), ash (Muffle furnace - 550° C) and gross energy (calorimetry). Average values ​​of live weight were increasing in the course of fattening; at the end of fattening the live weight reached 0.452 kg. The carcass yield, breast muscle yield and thigh yield were evaluated (73.72%, 18.09%, 20.80%, respectively). Chemical analysis showed a highly significant difference (P ≤ 0.01) between the breast and thigh muscle for crude protein, fat, ash and gross energy. The ash content demonstrated a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) between the breast and thigh muscle. This study brings new data on the nutritional value of the meat of chukar partridge that can be used for reccomendation of a suitable feeding mixture.

Evaluation of the efficacy of vaccination of partridge against H9N2 vaccine

Low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (H9N2) is circulating in poultry industry of many Euroasian countries causing serious economical problems. In this study we investigated clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and efficacy of oil emulsion vaccines in chukar partridges. Seventy five chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) were divided randomly in three groups of 1-Challenged, 2- Vaccinated and challenged 3-Control (non-vaccinated and non-challenged) groups 25 birds/group. In challenged and vaccinated groups birds were inoculated with 0.4 ml allantoic fluid containing 107 EID50/bird of tA/Chicken/ Iran/772/1998(H9N2) avian influenza virus. Clinical signs, antibody response, viral shedding and vaccine efficacy were evaluated and compared among these groups. Clinical signs such as; coughing and sneezing with depression and decreased in feed and water consumption were observed in group one. Also in vaccinated and challenged group slight decrease of food and water consumption were observed. Both vaccinated and challenged groups showed maximum antibody titer at 9 DPI. At 1 DPI the virus was detected from all tissues in challenged group, however the virus wasn’t detected from the spleen and cecal tonsil of group vaccinated and challenged group. Unvaccinated challenged groups showed longest period of viral shedding in the trachea and kidney. Biography Professor Hassan Nili has completed his Ph.D at Queensland University in Australia and he his study leave research at VLA in UK on highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. He is currently the head of avian diseases research center of Shiraz University. He has been involved in Influenza research for more than 10 years.

Ontogeny of aerodynamics in Mallard ducks: comparative performance and developmental implications

Wing morphology correlates with flight performance and ecology among adult birds, yet the impact of wing development on aerodynamic capacity is not well understood. Recent work using chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), a precocial flier, indicates that peak coefficients of lift and drag (C(L) and C(D)) and lift-to-drag ratio (C(L):C(D)) increase throughout ontogeny and that these patterns correspond with changes in feather microstructure. To begin to place these results in a comparative context that includes variation in life-history strategy, we used a propeller and force-plate model to study aerodynamic force production across a developmental series of the altricial-flying mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). We observed the same trend in mallards as reported for chukar in that coefficients of vertical (C(V)) and horizontal force (C(H)) and C(V):C(H) ratio increased with age, and that measures of gross-wing morphology (aspect ratio, camber and porosity) in mallards did not account for intraspecific trends in force production. Rather, feather microstructure (feather unfurling, rachis width, feather asymmetry and barbule overlap) all were positively correlated with peak C(V):C(H). Throughout ontogeny, mallard primary feathers became stiffer and less transmissive to air at both macroscale (between individual feathers) and microscale (between barbs/barbules/barbicels) levels. Differences between species were manifest primarily as heterochrony of aerodynamic force development. Chukar wings generated measurable aerodynamic forces early (<8 days), and improved gradually throughout a 100 day ontogenetic period. Mallard wings exhibited delayed aerodynamic force production until just prior to fledging (day 60), and showed dramatic improvement within a condensed 2-week period. These differences in timing may be related to mechanisms of escape used by juveniles, with mallards swimming to safety and chukar flap-running up slopes to take refuge. Future comparative work should test whether the need for early onset of aerodynamic force production in the chukar, compared with delayed, but rapid, change in the mallard wing, leads to a limited repertoire of flight behavior in adult chukar compared with mallards.