Background: Climate change has a negative impact on smallholder farming, affecting both agricultural production and livelihoods. Agricultural extension services offer an essential role in enabling smallholder farmers to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate change through information dissemination, capacity building and the promotion of climate-smart agricultural practices. Aim: This study explores the challenges and constraints faced by agricultural extension in supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation among smallholder farmers. Setting: The study focuses on agricultural extension services in South Africa. Methods: A systematic review of literature on agricultural extension services and climate change in South Africa from 2000 to 2025 was conducted. Results: It was found that limited capacity building, poor coordination and lack of coherent systematic approaches to extension services affect farmers’ responses to climate-related challenges. Integration of extension services, inclusive crop and livestock production, land-use and water management, with climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies is significant for enhancing agricultural production. Conclusion: Targeted training, collaborations, adequate funding and adaptive and climate-resilient agricultural extension services can potentially improve food security among farming communities. Contribution: The review provides insights into how agricultural extension services can contribute to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to improve farming.

The conservation of natural resources to ensure the long-term sustainability of agriculture is a national priority. Likewise, reforming South Africa’s land and agrarian structure remains a key objective. However, balancing agricultural reform with the sustainable use of natural resources remains challenging. This study contributes to this body of work by analysing rangeland capability and its determinants on farms redistributed under the Proactive Land Acquisition Strategy (PLAS). A national survey of 1 752 farms was conducted, capturing information on farm manager demographics, farm characteristics and performance. Using published natural resource capability datasets, GPS coordinates of each farm and Surveyor-General cadastral boundaries projected through Google Maps, an interdisciplinary panel of scientists assessed the rangeland productivity of PLAS farms. The Tobit regression results indicate that factors such as the risk of bush encroachment, commercial productivity, gender of the farm manager, tenure security and climate capability were statistically significant in explaining variations in rangeland capability scores. As such, climate-change adaptation should be prioritised in rangeland management. Strengthening the public agricultural extension service by employing more rangeland ecologists could also ensure the sustainability of rangelands.

From heterogeneity factors to targeted policy: an application of econometrics and machine learning to Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption in maize production

The purpose of this study is to assess the multifunctionality of the Common Interest Group (CIG) approach in creating social innovation by transforming smallholder farming into a farm business for sustainable agriculture and rural development in Bangladesh. The study was carried out in Hathazari upazila of Chattogram district, Bangladesh. Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews from two-selected farm entrepreneurs and key informants' interviews (KIIs) with various stakeholders. We have introduced a Trajectory Equifinality Model (TEM) analysis based on the semi-structured interview case studies. The analytical results clarified that the CIG approach has been found to provide farmers with access to better knowledge and technologies. It is an approach that meets the needs of rural households in order to improve their knowledge and skills for better farming practices and their livelihoods. Second, their efficiency in the use of resources, particularly land and labour, has improved, as their agriculture has been diversified. It has improved institutional access at the local level and empowered farmers. So, we could call this a social innovation. Third, the CIG approach helps farmers to promote their farming business both directly and indirectly. Therefore, our policy implications suggest that the CIG approach could be enhanced through the mainstream agricultural extension services from Department of Agricultural Extension. However, farmers have encountered major difficulties in entering the right value chain to sell their agricultural products. It therefore requires the necessary attention from policymakers.

Agricultural extension services are crucial in enhancing farmer education, increasing agricultural productivity, and promoting sustainable farming practices worldwide. This concept paper examines the agricultural extension models in the United States, Rwanda, and Nigeria, focusing on capacity building, technology integration, and educator preparation. The US model, rooted in the cooperative extension system, integrates land-grant universities, advanced digital tools, and structured educator training. Rwanda’s Twigire Muhinzi model emphasizes community-led extension, leveraging farmer promoters and information and communication technology (ICT) driven advisory services. Nigeria’s extension system adopts a public-private partnership approach, incorporating ICT tools, decentralized extension services, and farmer support schemes such as the growth enhancement support scheme. The study identifies common themes and challenges across the three systems, including scalability issues, regional disparities, funding constraints, and the digital divide. Findings suggest that no single extension model is universally applicable; rather, successful systems must be context-specific, participatory, technology-driven and adaptable to meet the needs of their stakeholders. The study recommends cross-country collaboration, enhanced digital literacy, and policy alignment to improve extension effectiveness. By integrating best practices from each system, agricultural extension services can be more inclusive, responsive, and sustainable, ultimately strengthening global food security and rural livelihoods.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has emerged as an important mechanism for promoting sustainable agricultural development and farmer empowerment, particularly in regions where public agricultural extension systems face institutional and resource constraints. This review examines how CSR-driven initiatives contribute to farmer empowerment through capacity building, skill development, knowledge dissemination, and inclusive value-chain participation. Despite increasing corporate investments in agriculture, the translation of CSR efforts into sustained farmer empowerment remains uneven. The paper conceptualizes agricultural extension services as a critical intermediary linking corporate interventions with farmers by facilitating technical training, resource dissemination, and social capital formation. Evidence from existing literature suggests that CSR initiatives enhance adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, strengthen human and social capital, and improve farmers’ access to markets, technologies, and institutional support. Capacity-building approaches such as farmer training programs, digital extension platforms, demonstrations, and collective action mechanisms significantly improve farmers’ adaptive capacity and resilience to climate and market risks. The review further highlights the alignment of CSR interventions with global development frameworks, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), contributing to environmental sustainability and rural livelihood enhancement. However, challenges such as compliance-oriented implementation, limited stakeholder participation, and weak monitoring systems may constrain long-term impacts. The study emphasizes that participatory extension frameworks integrating farmer agency and multi-stakeholder collaboration are essential for transforming CSR from philanthropic engagement into a sustainable empowerment strategy, thereby fostering resilient and self-reliant farming communities.

Artificial Intelligence tools such as Large Language Models, e.g., ChatGPT and Gemini, are reshaping information access, yet current systems lack the technical accuracy and regional awareness required for professional agricultural extension and advisory services. This study examines the development of a localized LLM tool designed specifically for Ontario agronomic advisors. By integrating AI with a curated database of Ontario-specific knowledge sources, the project leverages smart search technology to connect AI capabilities with the insights from agricultural professionals. Preliminary findings show advisors require LLM tools that can tailor information, save time, and complement their expertise. Highlighting a one-stop, integrated AI platform that provides accurate, context-relevant agricultural advice, strengthening the delivery and efficiency of agricultural support across Ontario.

Limited reach and delayed responsiveness of conventional agricultural extension services may constrain fish farming productivity in Nigeria. Inadequate farm visits and delayed access to technical expertise can hinder timely problem resolution and informed decision-making. This exploratory case study examined the use of Google Meet and Zoom as real-time digital extension tools for supporting aquaculture advisory interactions at Brazil Farm, Abuja, Nigeria. A field-based case-study design was adopted, and live advisory sessions were conducted on both platforms to connect a farm manager with an aquaculture specialist located remotely. Structured observation was used to assess technical performance, interaction quality, advisory clarity, and farmer engagement during the live sessions. Both platforms enabled real-time visual assessment, interactive diagnosis, and immediate technical feedback, suggesting that synchronous video platforms may support real-time aquaculture advisory interactions in similar contexts. However, performance differences were observed. Zoom demonstrated more stable connectivity and clearer audio transmission, supporting smoother interaction during the technical discussion. Google Meet provided easier access and simpler navigation, facilitating quicker session initiation for users with limited prior experience. The observations from this exploratory case study suggest that platform functionality may be influenced by technological reliability, user familiarity, and local infrastructural conditions. Although limited to a single-case field study, the research provides empirical insight into the potential of real-time digital advisory systems to complement conventional extension approaches. Further multi-site and quantitative investigations are recommended to enhance generalizability and inform policy adoption.

Abstract Invasive species pose a significant global threat to ecosystems, biodiversity and livelihoods, yet community-level management strategies remain understudied in sub-Saharan Africa. In particular, limited empirical evidence exists on how community adaptive capacity and underlying community capitals shape local preferences for invasive plant management, and this study aims to quantify these preferences and identify locally supported management pathways. The analysis focuses on local communities in Mhuju and Ntchenachena, two areas adjacent to Nyika National Park, Malawi. Using a community capital framework lens and a stated preference choice experiment, we elicited households’ preferences over candidate management actions and factors shaping those preferences. Preferences were estimated and scenario analysis conducted to identify policy relevant intervention bundles. Communities consistently favoured awareness campaigns, integration into school curricula, community-led control, livelihood diversification, collaboration with local authorities, and incorporation into agricultural extension services. Heterogeneity in preferences was associated with age, education, prior awareness of invasion impacts, participation in environmental committees, and place of residence. Four management pathways emerged from the hypothetical scenarios, educational and outreach initiatives, community-led management, increased government funding and resourcing, and integrated packages combining outreach, local leadership and service delivery. These pathways provide a locally grounded basis for strengthening communities’ resilience to plant invasion. We recommend embedding invasive plant management within local school curriculum and routine extension services, coupled with community-led actions and complementary livelihood options to enhance adaptation capacity and long-term effectiveness of control.

Adoption of modern farming techniques remains essential for improving agricultural productivity and ensuring food security among smallholder farmers in developing countries. This study examined the influence of agricultural input supply and advisory services on the adoption of modern farming techniques among maize farmers in Adamawa State the study was guided by two objectives, two research questions were raised, and two null hypotheses formulated. A survey research design was employed, and from a population of 4,683 registered maize farmers across the four Agricultural zone in Adamawa State, a structured questionnaire was used to collect data from Sample size of 351 farmers selected through multi-stage sampling technique. The instrument was validated by experts, and tested for reliability with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.83. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (simple linear regression analysis) which was tested at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that agricultural input supply services significantly influence the adoption of modern farming techniques by improving farmers’ access to improved input R² = 0.283, F-ratio = 138.088, p < 0.05), Similarly, advisory services were found to enhance farmers’ knowledge and technical skills, thereby encouraging the adoption of improved farming practices with R² = 0.462, F- ratio = 299.480, p < 0.05). The study concludes that strengthening agricultural extension services, particularly input supply and advisory support, can significantly improve the adoption of modern farming techniques among maize farmers.

This study examined the factors influencing the OFSP adoption among smallholder farmers in Sierra Leone. Logistic regression was used to examine factors affecting the adoption of improved sweet potato varieties of Sierra Leone. A multi stage sampling was used to select 200 sweet potato farmers from five major districts. The data was collected on the socio-economics characteristics, rate of adoption, determinants of adoption and drivers and barriers of adoption of improved sweet potato farmers using android devices programme with the census and survey processing system (CSPro. 6.3) software package. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The result suggested that there was higher magnitude of adoption in the treatment area than the control area, this was as a result of the NARC research activities on OFSP genotypes. Result suggested that the socio-economics factors that significantly influence the probability of adopting at least one improves sweet potato variety of the study area were; marital status, educational level, household population, main crop cultivated and sweet potato production cycle. Also, the result suggested that the probability of sweet potato farmer to adopt one improve sweet potato variety was determined by farmers’ access to extension services, access to loan and belongingness to an ABC. The three major drivers to sweet potato adoption were; easy access to land, high consumers demand and knowledge and experience in sweet potato, while the three major barriers of sweet potato adoption were; lack of finance, lack of agricultural inputs and pests and diseases. The access to agricultural extension services and the socio-economics characteristics significantly influenced the adoption of improved sweet potato varieties.

Maize production, a strategic food crop for food security and rural incomes in Cameroon, is increasingly threatened by climate change. The main objective is to assess the extent to which farmers’ adaptive behaviors contribute to strengthening the resilience of family farms in the Banyo subdivision of the Adamawa region. The methodological approach combined a literature review with a field survey conducted among 234 maize producers. Data analysis revealed that more than 80% of farmers adjust their cropping calendar, delaying or advancing sowing dates to cope with prolonged droughts at the beginning of the agricultural season. Around 97% adopt improved seeds and implement practices such as field irrigation, crop diversification, intercropping, agricultural intensification, and the use of organic fertilizers to compensate for declining soil fertility and to optimize yields. The adoption of off-season cropping further illustrates a willingness to innovate and secure production despite climatic uncertainties. These agricultural practices highlight both a strong capacity for local adaptation and the persistence of significant vulnerabilities. While farmers are mobilizing a diverse repertoire of climate-smart practices, their effectiveness remains constrained by technical, economic, and institutional barriers. The study underscores the urgent need for strengthened agricultural extension services, improved access to timely climate information, and wider dissemination of appropriate technologies tailored to local contexts. Beyond its empirical findings, this research contributes to enriching scientific debates on agricultural adaptation in Central Africa. It also provides concrete insights for guiding public policies towards sustainable resilience strategies that build on farmer behavior, local innovations, and knowledge systems.

Coastal Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to climate change. Although Agricultural Extension Services (AESs) play a crucial role in promoting Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) to enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity, farmers’ perceptions of their effectiveness remain poorly understood. This study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods approach to assess farmers' perceptions of AES effectiveness in Koyra Upazila, Khulna District. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected concurrently from 9 March to 26 April 2025 using a semi-structured questionnaire survey administered to 190 farmers, complemented by focus group discussions (FGDs). The Perceived Effectiveness Index (PEI), one-way ANOVA, and multiple regression analysis were used to examine perceived effectiveness and its determinants. Findings reveal that 76.8% of farmers perceived AESs as moderately to highly effective in supporting CSA adoption. Introduction of stress-tolerant crop varieties (PEI = 678), stakeholder involvement in decision-making (PEI = 638), and climate-related training (PEI = 614) were rated most effective. Conversely, credit facilities (PEI = 280), ICT use (PEI = 292), and infrastructure support (PEI = 306) were perceived as least effective. ANOVA results show significant variation in perceived effectiveness by age and farming experience. Regression analysis (R² = 0.311) identified age, training, and CSA adoption as positive predictors, while climate impact perception, farm size, and adoption barriers negatively influenced perception. Despite moderate success, substantial gaps exist in service delivery, especially regarding financial support, value addition of agricultural products, infrastructure development, fair market access, and digital support. Enhancing AES effectiveness requires greater integration of localized training, farmer participation, and access to enabling resources.

The main challenge to the income diversity of Indian smallholder farmers is the continued reliance on mono-crop for most India’s farmers, coupled with the lack of irrigation and limited access to employment outside the farm. To improve rural development and agricultural expansion program in India, we need to understand how agriculture, livestock, and irrigation work together to generate household income. The link between the agricultural system, livestock holdings, access to irrigation and household income is analysed using data collected from 195 households represent 18 villages in the Patan block of Chhattisgarh in central India through a structured survey. Descriptive statistical methods together with comparative analysis, are used to quantify the variability of household income from own resources. The results show that agriculture is the main source of income for the majority of households; however, combining agriculture with livestock or other business activities provides households with more stable income. Households have higher income level if they have access to guaranteed irrigation. Livestock provide households with both an additional source of income and a means to reduce income variability. The results show that there is a strong need to develop a more integrated approach to agricultural extension services, provide farmers with access to farm support, support for the development of diverse agricultural systems and also fair and equitable access to irrigation to improve their income security.

Access to timely and reliable agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS) remains a critical challenge for smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa. Although AEAS play a central role in improving productivity and resilience, public systems are often under-resourced and unevenly delivered, particularly in remote and low-income regions. In Ghana's Upper West Region (UWR), high farmer-to-agent ratios and logistical constraints limit service effectiveness. As governments and development partners explore cost-sharing and market-oriented extension models, understanding farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for advisory services becomes increasingly important. This study examines the determinants of smallholder farmers’ WTP for AEAS in the UWR, with particular emphasis on household food insecurity and socio-economic characteristics. Data were drawn from a cross-sectional survey of 1033 smallholder households and analyzed using nested binary logistic regression models. The results indicate that food insecurity significantly reduces the likelihood of WTP. In contrast, female-headed households, households practicing joint decision-making, and those with access to remittances or farm credit were more likely to express WTP. Extended family structures and greater participation in agricultural labor were also positively associated with WTP. Notably, poorer households demonstrated higher WTP relative to wealthier groups. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for consumption vulnerability, financial access, and household organization in the design of cost-sharing extension systems. Policies that incorporate targeted subsidies, gender-responsive programming, and community-based delivery mechanisms may enhance inclusivity and sustainability in agricultural advisory provision.

This study elucidates the behavioral determinants influencing climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption among smallholder leafy vegetable agripreneurs in semi-arid Central Tanzania. Employing an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) that incorporates perceived usefulness from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a mediating construct, the study examines how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control shape CSA adoption decisions. A cross-sectional survey encompassing 385 agripreneurs from Dodoma and Singida regions was conducted, with data analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) utilizing Smart PLS 4. The empirical findings demonstrate that attitudes exert the strongest influence on both perceived usefulness (β = 0.528, p < 0.001) and CSA adoption, indicating that agripreneurs who recognize CSA benefits demonstrate greater adoption propensity. Subjective norms (β = 0.231, p < 0.01) and perceived behavioral control (β = 0.198, p < 0.05) similarly influence perceived usefulness significantly, underscoring the importance of social networks and resource accessibility. Perceived usefulness emerges as a robust mediator between behavioral determinants and adoption (β = 0.580, p < 0.001), highlighting its pivotal role in translating positive perceptions into concrete adoption decisions. The investigation yields critical policy implications, including the imperative to strengthen agricultural extension services, enhance financial accessibility, and leverage social networks to facilitate CSA adoption. Notwithstanding limitations inherent in the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported measures, this study generates valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners. Future investigations should employ longitudinal approaches and integrate objective farm-level assessments to comprehensively elucidate CSA adoption dynamics in resource-constrained environments.

Background: Agricultural development in Indonesia relies heavily on effectively integrating agricultural extension services. The quality of these services is shaped by the strength of extension institutions, including organizational structures, operational mechanisms and the extent to which farmer groups and their members are engaged as target beneficiaries. The study aims to investigate agricultural extension instructors activities, evaluate farmer groups performance and analyze the relationship between extension activities and farmer group performance in Kubu Raya District, Indonesia. Methods: The research was conducted at Tanjungpura University, with the study site located in Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The research period was 2023. A total of 37 agricultural extension officers were involved and selected using a simple random sampling technique. The range criterion method was employed to assess the activities of agricultural extension officers and the level of performance improvement among farmer groups. Furthermore, a chi-square test with cross-tabulation analysis was applied to examine the association between extension officer activities and farmer group performance. Result: Agricultural extension activities were assessed through administrative and reporting activities and farmer group development activities. All scores fell within neutral, positive and very positive categories. The Chi-Square test results indicated that the activities of agricultural extension agents had a significant relationship with farmer group performance in Kubu Raya District, Indonesia, at α 0.05 significance level. The strength of this relationship, based on the contingency coefficient, was 0.93.

The research aims to improve agricultural extension services provided to beekeepers in Holy Karbala Governorate, Iraq. A random sample of 100 beekeepers in the governorate was taken. A questionnaire was prepared, including six main areas: suggestions for improving the agricultural extension system, improving the marketing, improving the equipment, improving the innovation stimulation, improving the policies and the enabling environment, and improving the financing. The results have shown a high level of agreement among beekeepers on the suggestions of improving the Agricultural Extension Services (AESs) provided to them. Consequently, this high level of approval and satisfaction with the suggestions presented in the research must be matched by an organized process to put these suggestions into actual practice by decision-makers. This will significantly and effectively contribute to solving the problems faced by beekeepers and achieving the desired economic, social, and environmental aims of beekeepers in Holy Karbala Governorate.

Smallholder farmers often face constraints in accessing up-to-date agricultural knowledge, extension services, market information, and decision-support tools. The emergence of ICT-based tools (mobile phones, apps, WhatsApp groups, video advisories) offers potential for bridging these gaps. This review paper synthesizes global and Indian empirical evidence on digital extension / ICT knowledge sharing, examines patterns of internet penetration in rural India and specifically in Bihar, and discusses enablers, barriers, and recommendations. We also present an illustrative example of data (simulated) to show how ICT access, extension training, and digital group participation could correlate with knowledge-adoption and empowerment among smallholders. Key findings indicate that personalized digital extension services are significantly associated with productivity gains, adoption of improved practices, income enhancement [10]; “Using Personalized Digital Extension Services…” study), and that rural internet usage has been rising rapidly though Bihar’s internet penetration still lags behind more advanced states. Enablers include extension institution involvement, content localization, affordable connectivity; barriers include device ownership inequality (especially women), literacy and digital literacy, trust, and relevance of content. For Bihar, policy recommendations include enhancing KVK-ICT collaborations, digital literacy Programmes, gender-sensitive design, and rigorous impact evaluation.

Background: The rising national demand for rice has drawn attention as farmers face low rice productivity and inadequate farm income. Farmer groups and agricultural extension agents are predicted to tackle these problems; however, their specific contributions remain unclear. Therefore, this study aims to examine the roles of farmer organizations and extension agents in improving rice productivity and farm income in Indonesia. Methods: This study employed 2024 cross-sectional data covering all provinces of Indonesia, gathered from the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) and the Ministry of Agriculture. Further, the data for rice productivity are specific, while the available farm income data represent overall agricultural income due to data limitations. Our study analyzed the data employing two separate multiple linear regression approaches, incorporating composite indices for farmer groups and extension agents, as well as priority province status as control variables to assess the influence of these actors on rice productivity and farm income. Findings: The study finds that neither farmer organizations nor extension agents hava a significant effect on rice productivity. However, farmer organizations display an adverse effect on farm income at the 10% significance level, while extension agents have a positive but statistically insignificant effect. Additionally, the priority province variable shows statistical significance at the 1% level for rice productivity but not for farm income. Conclusion: The findings conclude that strengthening farmer organizations and extension services in Indonesia remains a major concern for improving rice productivity and farm income. Despite these insights, using aggregate farm income data remains a limitation that can not fully reflect the specific economic dimension of rice-based farming. Novelty/Originality of this article: Prior research focused on data from a specific region, whereas this article employs national data to provide a broader analysis of farmer organizations and extension agents.