Agri-food Production Research Articles

Accelerating Sustainable Agri-Food Production and Processing in Post-Covid Recovery within Turkey’s Context

The Covid-19 pandemic not only has halted our day-to-day life but has also slowed down our progress towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by imposing constraints in our social and economic lives. Hence, an all-hands approach in which stakeholders come together to ensure the implementation of the SDGs is essential for a post-pandemic recovery. As the SDGs are perceived as an invisible whole, it is eminent that synergies and tradeoffs exist within the different goals they present. This review paper explores the environmental-human linkage within SDG 2 and SDG 12 by focusing on optimizing the synergies between sustainable food production systems and resilient agriculture practices while addressing how to reduce the tradeoffs between these goals. The paper analyzes thematic focus areas such as resource utilization in the agri-food sector, food loss and waste management, IoT (Internet of Things) technologies and smart farming, the circular economic model for the agri-food industry, and food security. Moreover, the paper investigates specific targets and indicators for both SDG 2 and SDG 12 and explores these targets within the framework of proper food waste management; increased crop yield; sustainable food production methodologies; the effect of the food production sector on the environment; as well as efficient resource use including water, land, and Nitrogen in the context of Turkey

Hydroponic Capital: Socionatural Innovation and the Intensification of Glasshouse Agrifood Production

This article develops the concept of hydroponic capital in order to explain the emergence of socionatural innovations aiming to enhance food security and production efficiencies in glasshouse agrifood production clusters. It does so through an archaeology of the knowledge regimes involved in technology innovations and examines the regionalized and transnational networks of crop scientists, growers, and extension workers involved. How hydroponics resulted in an intensification of the circulation time for capital and a reduction in the scale and costs of labor inputs is explained. In doing so, advances in economic geographic understanding of innovation through an engagement with agrarian political economy and political ecological debates to explain how hydroponic capital developed through the combination of different innovatory knowledges seeking to grapple with plant pathologies and cropping systems across regionalized networks of actors are discussed. Hydroponics was a way for growers to overcome biophysical barriers to production and labor rationalization problems. The article combines an understanding of the dynamics of labor and capital in agrarian systems, since they struggle with crop biophysicality, with the granular processes of knowledge deployment by which innovation takes place to overcome these biophysical barriers in agrifood supply chains. Unlike much existing innovation research focusing on the combination of different knowledge bases, why different forms of innovation knowledge were combined to overcome biophysical barriers in agrifood innovation is explained.

The Economic Impacts of Using Renewable Energy Technologies for Irrigation Water Pumping and Nanoparticle Fertilizers on Agri-Food Production in Iraq

While traditional energy sources such as oil, coal, and natural gas drive economic growth, they also seriously affect people’s health and the environment. Renewable energies (RE) are presently seen as an efficient choice for attaining long-term sustainability in development. They provide an adequate response to climate change and supply sufficient electricity. The current situation in Iraq results from a decades-long scarcity of reliable electricity, which has impacted various industries, including agriculture. There are diverse prospects for using renewable energy sources to address the present power crisis. The economic and environmental impacts of renewable energy systems were investigated in this study by using the solar pumping irrigation system and nanoparticle fertilizers on agri-food production with the Farm Simulation FARMSIM model. The results show that using all REs with Carefree Water Conditioner for water treatment resulted in the highest net present value and profit compared to other scenarios. The findings, however, indicate that the All RE scenario (using a solar irrigation system with a nanoparticle fertilizer system, a low-cost technology) is the most feasible and has the highest benefit–cost ratio. Due to high initial investment costs, all traditional approaches (using traditional irrigation and fertilizer systems) had a lower benefit–cost ratio than the other scenarios. According to simulation results, all four scenarios are profitable and feasible for implementation.

Assessment of map based variable rate strategies for copper reduction in hedge vineyards

Reduction of Plant Protection Products (PPP) has become a priority in agriculture, led by European directives and regulations due to the negative impacts and social awareness that pesticides have raised in the population. In viticulture, the use of copper to control Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola) is posing severe problems of soil, water and environment contamination, and European Commission is regulating its use through the EU regulation 2018/1981. A targeted spraying management can be done benefiting from the novel development of variable rate application (VRA) technology for orchard sprayers, resulting in savings of PPP. In this research, the quality of the application in terms of copper deposit in leaves of two VRA strategies where compared versus the conventional strategy performed by the farmer (REF). In each of the two VRA strategies, copper dosage was selected 1) maintaining copper dose per hectare (VRA) and 2) following the copper concentration listed in the product label (VRA[Cu]). Drone based NDVI maps from three commercial vineyards were used to characterize the structure of the vegetation in every vigour zone and manual measures in field were used to determine the most appropriate spraying volume rate according to canopy characteristics.Results show that a reduction of 33 and 44 % of copper used per hectare did not have significant impact on the quality of the application. On the contrary, while leaf deposit was comparable to that achieved by REF strategy, the product was better distributed across the entire canopy. Savings of 40 % of copper could be achieved in in the PPP application calendar along the season 2019 with no influence in disease control. Impact of PPP can be reduced by incorporating digital technologies, and the objectives of the Farm to Fork strategy and the European Green Deal can be met ensuring a more sustainable agri-food production.

DEVELOPMENT LINKAGES OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM’S COFFEE AND TEA SECTOR: GLOBAL AND REGIONAL VALUE CHAIN PERSPECTIVES

The development of agriculture and agrifood-based products is at the forefront of Brunei Vision 2035, Brunei Darussalam’s most aggressive economic drive to date. One such instance of agri-food production is locally made coffee and tea products, which is taking place in the country despite the limited amounts of domestic raw materials available. The presence of this sector in the market, therefore, warrants further investigation. This case study uses Michael Porter’s Value Chain Analysis (VCA) and Gereffi’s Global–Regional Value Chain (GRVC) theory to analyze Brunei’s coffee and tea Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) by mapping and tracing the origins of inputs; identifying local and regional value-adding processes; and pinpointing firms’ strategies towards building their capacities and capabilities. The aim is to establish the competitiveness of this sector against regional and global well-known brands. As such, this paper highlights inter-firm linkages of coffee and tea production in Brunei and positions Brunei’s firms in Shih’s GVC smiling curve, relative to its partners based on levels of value-addedness and functional complexities. While limited to conventional coffee and tea producers, this study provides a starting point in the hybrid use of VCA and GRVC to understand local–regional development linkages that exist in small national economies like Brunei Darussalam which are necessary for firms to remain competitive. It also contributes to policy learning and knowledge enrichment for the government, consumers, and industrialists alike, by highlighting the lessons gained from this sector’s experiences.

Prairie Agroecosystems: Interconnected Microbiomes of Livestock, Soil and Insects

Agroecosystems are comprised of environmental compartments where associated microbial communities interact with one another. These microbial communities, called microbiomes, inhabit livestock, insects, and plants. Microbiomes are also present in the soil and watersheds. Clarifying the nature and extent of microbial interactions between compartments both at intra-farm and global scales can promote sustainable production systems, healthier animals, increased crop yields, and safer meat products. Early research on microbiomes was hindered by a lack of expertise and the high cost of molecular sequencing. However, these limitations have been largely resolved with advances in and reduced costs of sequencing technologies. In this paper, we summarize sequencing and bioinformatics approaches, and review the crucial roles of diverse microbiomes in livestock, plants and soil, as well as pollinators and pest insects. These crucial roles include nutrient cycling, nutrient acquisition, metabolism of toxins and enhanced host immune function. Additionally, we examine potentially undesirable effects of microbiomes associated with climate change and agri-food production such as their role in the release of greenhouse gases from cattle and their impact on meat safety and spoilage. By increasing the awareness of microbiomes and the growing ease with which they can be studied, we hope to foster a greater adoption of microbiome research. Further understanding of the diverse effects and interactions of microbiomes will advance our efforts to increase agricultural production while reducing its negative environmental footprint, thus making the agroecosystems more sustainable.

Biostimulants alleviate water deficit stress and enhance essential oil productivity: a case study with savory

Water deficit stress exposure frequently constrains plant and agri-food production globally. Biostimulants (BSs) can be considered a new tool in mitigating water deficit stress. This study aimed to understand how BSs influence water deficit stress perceived by savory plants (Satureja hortensis L.), an important herb used for nutritional and herbal purposes in the Middle East. Three BS treatments, including bio-fertilizers, humic acid and foliar application of amino acid (AA), were implemented. Each treatment was applied to savory plants using three irrigation regimes (low, moderate and severe water deficit stress FC100, FC75 and FC50, respectively). Foliar application of AA increased dry matter yield, essential oil (EO) content and EO yield by 22%, 31% and 57%, respectively. The greatest EO yields resulted from the moderate (FC75) and severe water deficit stress (FC50) treatments treated with AA. Primary EO constituents included carvacrol (39–43%), gamma-terpinene (27–37%), alpha-terpinene (4–7%) and p-cymene (2–5%). Foliar application of AA enhanced carvacrol, gamma-terpinene, alpha-terpinene and p-cymene content by 6%, 19%, 46% and 18%, respectively. Physiological characteristics were increased with increasing water shortage and application of AA. Moreover, the maximum activities of superoxide dismutase (3.17 unit mg−1 min−1), peroxidase (2.60 unit mg−1 min−1) and catalase (3.08 unit mg−1 min−1) were obtained from plants subjected to severe water deficit stress (FC50) and treated with AA. We conclude that foliar application of AA under water deficit stress conditions would improve EO quantity and quality in savory.

Quality and Nutritional Parameters of Food in Agri-Food Production Systems.

Organic farming is a production system that avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic agricultural inputs such as pesticides, growth regulators, highly soluble mineral fertilisers, supplements, preservatives, flavouring, aromatic substances and genetically modified organisms, and their products. This system aims to maintain and increase soil fertility and quality, and relies on systems such as crop rotation, polyculture, intercropping, ecosystem management, covering crops, legumes, organic and bio-fertilisers, mechanical cultivation and biological control methods. The present review summarises and evaluates research comparing the quality of traditionally, organically and conventionally produced foods. In some cases, although the results of the studies contradict each other, organically grown in vegetables, especially berries and fruits are slightly higher dry matter, minerals such as P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn, vitamin C, sugars, carotenoids, antioxidant activity, phenolic and flavonoid compounds. In addition, their sensory properties are more pleasant. The nutritional content, quality and safety of organic foods are acceptable if the recent trends are reviewed, tested and verified. Therefore, the aim of this review is to compile, describe and update scientific evidence and data on the quality, safety, bioactive compounds and nutritional and phytochemical quality of foods in traditional and organic fruit, vegetable and cereal production systems.

A strategic decision framework using soft-computing for agri-food production: case study living lab in universities

Designing autonomous or semi-autonomous greenhouses that can supply food under extreme environmental conditions or restricted social distances is an endeavor that has to be considered under pandemic conditions such as COVID-19. However, generally advanced greenhouses have been designed using conventional methodologies that are not integrated easily into reconfigurable designs. Moreover, those design methodologies are complex for novice product designers. This paper proposes a novel SDF (Strategic Decision Framework) to support reconfigurable agri-food production systems design. The framework proposed is based on the Integrated Product, Process, and Manufacturing System Development (IPPMD) reference model that uses reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMS) and Fuzzy Cluster Mean (FCM) algorithms in its decision support system. As a result, the proposed methodology generates fuzzy clusters using degrees of membership that can describe the design constraints straightforwardly. Those fuzzy clusters support a hierarchical decision-making process, so the design process is easily implemented. Besides, the proposed methodology is deployed in a complex, highly non-linear system (a greenhouse) that has an internal ecosystem autonomously controlled by mechanical, electrical, digital, and telecommunication subsystems. Hence, an innovative design methodology implemented for advanced reconfigurable systems is presented. The results confirm that the proposed SDF can be implemented in complex reconfigurable design systems when the manufacturing decisions are unclear to decision-makers and designers. Thus, this methodology provides useful, coherent information regarding the design process that simplifies decision-making when designing a reconfigurable greenhouse. Besides, this research shows an entirely reconfigurable greenhouse as a living lab implemented at Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico City campus to validate the proposed SDF.

Evaluation of the potential of near infrared hyperspectral imaging for monitoring the invasive brown marmorated stink bug

The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys, is an invasive insect pest of global importance that damages several crops, compromising agri-food production. Field monitoring procedures are fundamental to perform risk assessment operations, in order to promptly face crop infestations and avoid economical losses. To improve pest management, spectral cameras mounted on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and other Internet of Things (IoT) devices, such as smart traps or unmanned ground vehicles, could be used as an innovative technology allowing fast, efficient and real-time monitoring of insect infestations.The present study consists in a preliminary evaluation at the laboratory level of Near Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging (NIR-HSI) as a possible technology to detect BMSB specimens on different vegetal backgrounds, overcoming the problem of BMSB mimicry. Hyperspectral images of BMSB were acquired in the 980–1660 nm range, considering different vegetal backgrounds selected to mimic a real field application scene. Classification models were obtained following two different chemometric approaches. The first approach was focused on modelling spectral information and selecting relevant spectral regions for discrimination by means of sparse-based variable selection coupled with Soft Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (s-Soft PLS-DA) classification algorithm. The second approach was based on modelling spatial and spectral features contained in the hyperspectral images using Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN). Finally, to further improve BMSB detection ability, the two strategies were merged, considering only the spectral regions selected by s-Soft PLS-DA for CNN modelling.

The decoupling estimation effect as an indicator of the efficient use of natural capital in the agrifood in the southern geographical area of the Russian Federation

In the process of studying the issues of ecological and economic interaction, the so-called “decoupling” is increasingly becoming one of the defining concepts. Decoupling implies the elimination of the contradiction between the possibilities of ensuring economic growth and reducing the level of environmental impact. The most significant field of economic activity is an agrifood production. In the scope of reducing the consumption of natural resources, achieving the decoupling effect is fundamentally essential. In this regard, the paper based on the author’s methodological approach assesses the level of resource decoupling in the agrifood in the southern geographical area. Effectively, the obtained calculations propose to show a direct ratio between the level of resource decoupling and the agrifood efficiency at the regional level. The introduction of innovative nature-like technologies describes as one of the most considerable fields in agrifood development, which determines the accomplishment of the decoupling effect. Such technologies allow within the framework of technical systems and used technologies to reproduce the processes that occur in the natural environment.

Investigation of the impact of modern eco-marketing strategy on the development of organic agri-food production in Ukraine

It has been established that the demand for organic products creates a clear offer on the market as a product of natural origin and manufactured in compliance with the requirements of current legislation in the field of organic production and the circulation and labeling of organic products, therefore the study of the impact of the modern eco-marketing strategy on the development of organic production is extremely relevant, especially when organic production becomes a priority while planning a development strategy of the Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of Ukraine. It was found that the export capacity of Ukraine remains at a high level, and the demand of domestic and foreign markets for organic products differs significantly within a separate marketing season. The basic aspects of the circulation of organic products, as well as the strategy of modern eco-marketing regarding its promotion on domestic and foreign markets, are analyzed. The increase in the consumption of products of natural origin, as a result of raising the vision of eco-marketing to the rank of a global trend, stimulates the development of organic production and the recovery of agribusinesses affected by a full-scale war in order to maintain Ukraine's position as the world's leading exporter of organic products. The impact of the modern eco-marketing strategy on the development of organic production in Ukraine through the promotion of its vision as a global brand of production and consumption of goods and services is studied. It is shown that eco-marketing relies on an established strategy, which is a synergy of the following main approaches: marketing of goods and services taking into account environmental standards; marketing of ecological goods and services as a reflection of the ecological needs of the population; marketing of natural conditions and resources and marketing of nature use; marketing of environmental protection activities and habitat reproduction; and marketing of environmental knowledge and technologies. The main requirements for establishing compliance of production and/or circulation of products with the requirements of Ukrainian legislation in the field of organic production, circulation and labeling of organic products, as well as with the requirements of the Regulation of the European Parliament and the Council of the EU on organic production and labeling of organic products are defined.

Do consumers care about environmentally sustainable attributes along the food supply chain? —A systematic literature review

<abstract> <p>The agri-food market has shown a clear signal of "green" consumption that drives an increasing interest in studying consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for food products with environmentally sustainable attributes, such as eco-friendly and carbon neutral. Whilst many existing studies have focused on a general idea of green attributes or on-farm practices that are regarded to be most relevant to the attributes, the agri-food industry has started to address consumers' concerns about the negative environmental impacts of agri-food production across the whole supply chain, including the processing, transportation, and consumption process. It is therefore the purpose of this study to conduct a systematic review of the existing literature on consumers' intentions of purchasing and WTP for food products with environmentally sustainable attributes, with a special interest in understanding the connections between consumer behaviours and different stages of the food supply chain. Results of the study revealed three main research gaps: the lack of clear definitions of environmentally sustainable attributes; ignorance of connections between the characteristics of environmentally sustainable attributes and different stages of the food supply chain; and lacking effective information processing among the key players along the supply chain, leading to inefficient communication between the supply and demand side. The findings of the study help form a conceptual framework for future studies to associate environmentally sustainable attributes to the whole food supply chain that helps the agri-food industry to effectively process market information, communicate with consumers, and satisfy the market demand.</p> </abstract>

The role of intangible assets in promoting the sustainability of agri-food enterprises: Evidence from China

Considerable research has explored the relationship between intangible assets and firm performance in manufacturing and tertiary industries, but such studies remain scarce for the agri-food industry. In fact, numerous stresses, including the COVID-19 pandemic, have disrupted many activities along agri-food production chains in developing countries, resulting in huge pressure on sustainable agri-food production. Based on a sample of 94 A-share listed agri-food firms in China from 2008 to 2017, this study examines the impact of intangible assets on agri-food enterprises’ productivity using generalized method of moments estimation. The results reveal differences between private and state-owned enterprises, indicating that the promotional productivity effect of intangible assets held by private agri-food enterprises was insignificant in the current period, but will be manifested three periods later, in contrast to state-owned enterprises. Due to the soft budget constraints and incentive mechanism of state-owned agri-food enterprises, intangible assets will not promote productivity. In addition, by pursuing the financialization profit model, agri-food enterprises will sacrifice productivity improvement, which can further lead to selective abandonment in the use of intangible assets. Simultaneously, there is a crowding-out effect between intangible and fixed assets in promoting agri-food enterprises’ total factor productivity. The findings highlight the importance of the quality and conversion rate of intangible assets, particularly for agri-food enterprises, which are closely related to food security and stability.

Naturaleza y otra economía: relaciones con lo no humano en economías alternativas

This article emerges from a broader research project on the contribution of the field of the other economy to the processes of inclusion-transformation in Uruguay. Interviews with reference persons from second-degree organizations which belong to federations, networks and collectives that support alternative agri-food production practices, labor relations, production and habitat management are discussed to explore the positioning of these organizations in multiple dimensions, including the link with nature.  The text explores the ways in which the community and solidarity networks that are part of the other economy in Uruguay compose their link with the non-human, how they mean it and translate it into concrete practices. The research shows an important potential for mutual learning between experiences, as well as for the strengthening of the links between the traditional class criticism the sector has historically gone through and the more recent forms of organization and problematization in the face of socio-environmental injustice.

Life cycle and circularity metrics to measure the sustainability of closed-loop agri-food pathways

This work aims to present a methodological proposal based on Life Cycle (LC) methodologies, and circularity performance indicators, to assess closed-loop pathways by providing comprehensive results on economic and environmental impacts generated by agri-food production systems. The methodological approach will be tested on olive oil production systems, one of the most important agri-food chains for Mediterranean countries, whose import and export significance is set to grow in light of the shrinking market supply of seed oils. Some insights for the co-products valorization are provided through the evaluation of the reuse of by-products as a possible resource capable to improve the sustainability of the olive oil farms. The integrated application of three different methodologies, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Environmental Life Cycle Costing (ELCC) and Material Circularity Indicator (MCI), enabled comparative evaluation of Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) production under a linear production model with production under a circular model. The circular scenario was better in most environmental impact categories, registering an improvement in Global Warming Potential (GWP) of nearly 30%. In economic terms, there was a lower production cost for the circular scenario and a lower environmental cost by reducing the use of synthetic products through the reuse of waste products. The circular scenario recorded a higher degree of circularity due to a reduction in virgin raw materials used in the production process and a reduction in non-recoverable waste. The implementation of circular strategies represents one of the possible trajectories to guide the ecological transition, and the proposed methodological framework can support the decisions of both producers and public decision-makers toward more sustainable and efficient production patterns.

Mobilizing the Midstream for Supporting Smallholder Intensification

Most policies and incentives that aim to enable smallholder farmers towards the intensification of their agri-food production systems focus on supply-side strategies, such as training, technical assistance or credit services. Far less attention is usually given to demand-side drivers, such as the role of midstream value chain actors supporting smallholder’s investments in primary production. This explorative paper provides new insights on the value addition in the production vs. the midstream segments of agri-food value chains. It focusses attention on the influence of value chain integration on smallholders’ production and investment opportunities, and the implications for the structure of primary production. We use data from several value chains in sub-Saharan Africa to illustrate how farmers link to commercial midstream actors are able to enhance resource productivity, efficiency and profitability. In addition, we show that a larger role of the midstream in value added creation is associated with a more equal farm size distribution.

A robust and resilience machine learning for forecasting agri-food production

This research proposes a new framework for agri-food capacity production by considering resiliency and robustness and paying attention to disruption and risk for the first time. It is applied robust stochastic optimization by adding robustness to the constraint's objective function and resiliency situation. This research minimizes the mean absolute deviation and coefficient of standard deviation errors by linear function in the agri-food capacity production. This study suggests agri-food managers and decision-makers use this mathematical method to forecast and improve production management. The results of this research lead to better decision-making and are compared with other sine functions. The main model's Robust and Resiliency Mean Absolute Deviation (RRMAD) value is 1.28% lower than other sine-type functions. The conservativity coefficient, confidence level, weight factor, resiliency coefficient, and probability of the scenario vary. The main model's RRMAD value is 1.28% lower than other sine-type functions. Growing the weight factor will result in an increase in RRMAD and a smooth decline in R-squared. Additionally, as the resilience coefficient rises, the RRMAD function increases while the R-squared declines. By altering the probability of the scenario, the RRMAD function drops, and the R-squared goes up.

Agrifood system participation and production efficiency among smallholder vegetable farmers in Northern Ghana

AbstractFormalized marketing arrangements between smallholder farmers and produce buyers are gradually replacing spot market transactions in developing countries due to the rapid structural transformation of agrifood systems. This study examines the impact of agrifood system participation on the total value of vegetable production and technical efficiency (TE), using a sample of 423 vegetable farmers from Northern Ghana. We employ propensity score matching and W. Greene's selection bias‐corrected stochastic production frontier methods to correct for observable and unobservable selection bias issues, respectively. We further use a metafrontier model to derive technology gap ratios (TGRs) and meta‐TE for agrifood system participants and nonparticipants. The results reveal that agrifood system participants are about 50% more productive than nonparticipants. In addition, participants have higher meta‐TE (58% vs. 55%) and TGR (98% vs. 94%) than nonparticipants. Variables such as farmer group membership, extension visits, mobile phone ownership, irrigation and road access are the notable correlates of smallholder farmers' participation in agrifood systems. The total value of vegetable production is significantly influenced by fertilizer, agrochemicals, seeds, irrigation, soil fertility, and location‐fixed effects. [EconLit Citations: D24, Q12, Q18]

VOCs Analysis of Three Different Cultivars of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus L.) Whole Dietary Fiber.

In this study, the trend of VOCs of dietary fiber samples, coming from three different watermelon cultivars Citrullus lanatus L. (variety Gavina®®, Crimson Sweet, and Asahi Miyako) was investigated. This foodstuff, obtained as a by-product of residual agri-food production, has gained increasing attention because of its many bioactive components and high dietary fiber content. The result is a fibrous material for specific applications in food manufacturing, such as corrector for some functional and technological properties. In this study, a method based on headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to characterize the aromatic profiles of the dried raw materials. Therefore, the VOCs of the samples of the three cultivars were investigated. Experimental results have shown that watermelon fibers generate VOCs, which can be grouped into six common classes of analytes. The different distributions of the identified compounds made it possible to effectively differentiate the three cultivars studied based on their peculiar aroma profiles. In particular, Gavina®® fiber is distinguished by the high content of terpenes, Asahi Miyako by the presence of aldehydes generated as fatty acid metabolites, and Crimson Sweet by the higher content of acetyl esters.