Agency Beliefs Research Articles

Profiles of ability, effort, and difficulty: Relationships with worldviews, motivation and adjustment

Adopting a person-centered approach, we profiled 5th and 6th grade children's (152 boys and 161 girls) school-related beliefs about perceived task difficulty and agency beliefs in ability and effort. Five clusters were compared across key learning-related dimensions encompassing underlying worldviews (means–ends beliefs, normative difficulty, nature of ability), motivation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic), and adjustment (achievement and well-being): Agentic (high ability, high effort, low difficulty), Strivers (above average ability, high effort, high difficulty), Normative (average ability, effort and difficulty), Disengaged (low ability, low effort, average difficulty) and Challenged (low ability, low effort, high difficulty). The findings suggest that difficulty, perceived either as challenge or obstacle, plays an important role for the belief profiles, and that relationships with worldviews and motivation are indicative of adaptation and maladaptation.

Virtual Humans and Persuasion: The Effects of Agency and Behavioral Realism

Two studies examined whether participant attitudes would change toward positions advocated by an ingroup member even if the latter was known to be an embodied agent; that is, a human-like representation of a computer algorithm. While immersed in a virtual environment, participants listened to a persuasive communication from a digital representation of another student. The latter was actually an embodied agent (a computer-controlled digital representation of a human). Study 1 examined the extent to which gender of the virtual human, participant gender, and the agent's behavior affected attitude change. Results revealed gender-based ingroup favoritism in the form of greater attitude change for same gender virtual humans. Study 2 examined behavioral realism and agency beliefs; that is, whether participants believed the other to be an agent or an avatar (an online representation of an actual person). Results supported Blascovich and colleague's model of social influence within immersive virtual environments. Specifically, the prediction that virtual humans high in behavioral realism would be more influential than those low in behavioral realism was supported, but this effect was moderated by the gender of the virtual human and the research participant. Implications of these findings for the model are discussed.

The role of agency beliefs in transition: Commentary to the Special Section

These four papers together offer a fairly rare satisfaction, at least in the social sciences: First, they deal with the same general problem, the relationship between agentic beliefs and achievement, mostly educational or occupational. Second, the data are from different samples in different societies undergoing different kinds of sociopolitical and economic change and they are are analysed by a variety of methods. Finally, mirabile dictu, their findings agree on the general nature of the relationship between agency and achievement, namely, it is to a considerable degree reciprocal—agentic beliefs influence achievement, and achievement, especially success, influences agentic beliefs. In addition to demonstrating the generality of this effect, they present other findings that suggest basic similarities between rather different social systems. For instance, Schoon (2007, this issue) shows that a child’s education in the UK is largely determined by his/ her parents’ education. Despite 50 years of socialism, with its special laws making it easy for working-class children to enter university, this is just as true in Poland. To illustrate, Cichomski (2004) found that among citizens of Warsaw who only completed primary school, nearly half had fathers who also had no more than a primary school education, whereas less than 10% had fathers who were university graduates. Similarly, Diewald (2007, this issue) finds that agentic Germans see their successes as dispositional (due to personal effort and skill), and failures as situational (due to circumstances beyond anyone’s control), an effect that is observed in many different societies and that follows directly from attribution theory. Equally interesting are the cross-national differences. For example, Evans (2007, this issue) demonstrated that the level of educational and occupational success varies from one country to another depending on the range of different kinds of education and jobs the social system makes available to members; Schoon (2007, this issue) observed comparable differences in predictors of success as a function of the cohort. Taken together, these findings imply that in societies undergoing social change, cohort differences in achievement are likely because the range of opportunities afforded to individuals early in the process of change is different from that afforded later on. For instance, the best predictor of adult social status for disadvantaged individuals born in 1958 was their teenage educational aspirations; however, for disadvantaged youths born in 1970 the best predictor of adult social status was exam performance. This suggests that the former cohort had better opportunities; that is, a larger number of career options were available to these individuals, and thus, success depended less on the demonstration of academic competence than it did in the latter cohort. Under these conditions, processes mediating between individual agentic beliefs and educational or occupational outcomes may be critical in explaining cohort differences in the agency–achievement relationship. In Poland, for instance, the number of different kinds of schooling or careers available to individuals entering the labour market prior to the transition to a market economy was relatively small compared to the range available to those entering the labour market several years later after the transition. With this in mind we attempted to predict successful adaptation to the transition taking into

The Role of Personal Agency Beliefs in Academic Self-Regulation: An Asian Perspective

This study examines the role of self beliefs in the self-regulatory engagement of 1,304 middle school students in Singapore. Developing academic self-regulatory skills is particularly critical for these students when the syllabi are more cognitively demanding and regulation of one’s behaviour towards effective learning is increasingly called upon at the middle school level. However, such skills alone will not contribute much if students do not apply them persistently in the face of difficulties. Self-regulatory processes should be considered within the context of personal agency processes, such as self-efficacy and self-concept, which are conceptualized and grounded in Western individualistic frameworks. However, some research suggests that East Asian students in collectivistic yet achievement-oriented societies may be motivated more by the fear of failure. The relationships between the self beliefs of self-efficacy, self-concept and fear of failure and their respective role in academic self-regulation are evaluated in a country which is extensively exposed to Western individualistic ideologies but is at the same time rooted in Asian values.

The Role of Self-Regulation and Personal Agency Beliefs: A Psychoeducational Approach with Asian High School Students in Singapore

ABSTRACT This article presents a socio-cognitive approach to psychoeducational group work in which elements of self-regulatory and self processes are incorporated to facilitate student learning and problem-solving. The role of personal agency beliefs and the use of metacognitive, cognitive, and affective strategies in fostering students with a sense of personal responsibility and control to resolve issues are emphasized. These training elements have been shown to be successful in enhancing academic attainment in academic motivation research within Western contexts. The framework that was adapted for use in a group setting and with a different cultural group (13 year-old low-achieving Asian high school students) is described.

Preliminary validation of a hope scale for a rare health condition using web-based methodology

An evaluation of a health condition-specific hope scale adapted from the more general dispositional Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) is provided. Participants (N = 202) with a rare, debilitating, and potentially stigmatising health condition were recruited from readers of the Anal Fissure Self Help Page. Data were gathered anonymously using an online survey linked to the website. Consistent with hope theory, this new measure yielded a pathways factor (perceived capacity to find ways to achieve desired goals) and an agency factor (perceived motivation to pursue goals energetically). Respondents with stronger pathways thoughts reported greater benefits from website information for understanding and generating strategies for managing anal fissures. Stronger agency beliefs were related to more frequent website visits, more rereading of first-hand patient accounts, and shorter duration of fissure symptoms. Results offer preliminary support for validity of this scale and for using web-based methodologies to study conditions, such as anal fissure.

Relations Among Personal Agency, Motivation, and School Adjustment in Early Adolescence.

The authors examined relations among motivational styles and school adjustment in a sample of 786 7thand 8th grade U.S. students. Specifically, the authors tested the hypothesis that agency beliefs mediaterelations between styles of motivational self-regulation (i.e., intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrin-sic) and school adjustment (school grades, school well-being, and positive and negative affect). Astructural equation model testing this hypothesis indicated that agency beliefs about one’s effort mediatethe relations between the styles and positive school adjustment. By contrast, the extrinsic style was notmediated by agency beliefs but reflected adverse low-magnitude direct effects on all of the outcomesexcept positive affect. Overall, the model strongly predicted school adjustment, and adherence to theidentified motivational style was particularly important.

A comparison of perceived control beliefs between Chinese and American students

This study examines the developmental patterns of perceived control beliefs among a total of 1720 urban Chinese, rural Chinese, and American students in second through sixth grade. Children’s perceived control beliefs were measured with the Revised Control, Agency, and Means-end Interview (CAMI). The results show that the latent structures of perceived control beliefs were comparable among the three groups of students. The increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of agency and global control expectancy beliefs. However, there was no evidence that the increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of means-end beliefs. The developmental patterns of global control expectancy and agency beliefs were similar between Chinese and American students across the elementary school years. The correlations between global control expectancy and the dimensions of agency beliefs and school performance were stronger than those between the dimensions of means-end beliefs and school performance among the three groups of students. Also, the relationships between the dimensions of perceived control beliefs and performance were stronger in language arts than in math. The unique features of the perceptions of “luck”, “ability”, and “effort” among Chinese students were also discussed in terms of the alternative bases of philosophy and religion, the nature of school feedback, and the likelihood of quality experiences in parent–child mediated interactions.

Predicting adolescent eating and activity behaviors: The role of social norms and personal agency.

Guided by the theory of planned behavior, this 2-week longitudinal study examined health behaviors in a sample of 279 adolescents. Social norms and perceived behavioral control (PBC) were tested as predictors of self-reported intentions and behaviors in 2 domains, eating and physical activity. Differentiating, as opposed to aggregating, parent and peer norms provided unique information. For PBC, the authors distinguished global causality beliefs from self-related agency beliefs and intraself (effort, ability) from extraself (parents, teachers) means. Intraself agency beliefs strongly predicted healthy intentions, whereas intraself causality beliefs had a negative influence. Patterns differed somewhat across behaviors and gender. Results highlight theoretical issues and provide potential targets for research on health promotion programs for youth.

The development of gender differences in affective expression and in the relationship between mood and achievement-related self-judgments

In this study, 434 children and adolescents completed the Control-,Agency-, and Means-ends beliefs Interview (CAMI). Moreover, we asked for current mood-state and achievement-related affect after success and failure at school. There was no gender difference in achievement-related affective expression in children (9 and 10 years old), but there was a substantial difference in adolescents (15 and 16 years old), boys reporting less affect than girls. A different pattern emerged for the impact of affect on achievement-related beliefs. Again, children did not show any gender difference. In adolescents, however, boys' current mood-state was related to agency beliefs to a higher extent than girls' current mood state. Thus, boys, in comparison to girls, may develop inhibition of affective expression, but over the same span, they continue to base agency beliefs on their current mood-state whereas girls do not.

The Relationship of Gender and Academic Performance to Motivation: Within-Ethnic-Group Variations.

In contemporary psychology more within-group examinations of psychological phenomena are needed, especially in ethnic minority populations. This paper presents the findings of three separate studies of the relationship of GPA and gender to motivation, all of which are within ethnic group comparisons. One study is conducted with African-Americans, the second with Hispanic-Americans, and the third with Euro-Americans. The instruments used are the Assessment of Academic Self-Concept and Motivation and Assessment of Personal Agency Beliefs. Both measures provide a goal-focused, multidimensional, and comprehensive assessment of motivation. MANOVAs and subsequent ANOVAs are presented for each ethnic group. The findings reveal significant within-group differences that also vary from one ethnic group to another.

Resilient students' goals and motivation

This paper presents the results of an exploratory analysis, description, and comparison of the self-concept and motivational patterns of academically resilient, non-resilient students, advantaged achievers, and advantaged low-achievers. Resilient students are defined as coming from an impoverished and stressful environment, yet achieving a 2·75 or greater grade point average (GPA). Non-resilient students come from the same background, yet do not have the requisite GPA. There are 17 resilient students and there are 19 non-resilient students. The advantaged achievers come from a low-stress, high-SES background and have a 2·75 or greater GPA. The advantaged low-achievers come from a low-stress, high-SES background, but their GPA falls below 2·75. There are 19 advantaged achievers and nine advantaged low-achievers. Goals, self-concept, and environmental support beliefs are measured by the Assessment of Personal Agency Beliefs and the High School Assessment of Academic Self-Concept. The results show significant results in the cognitive beliefs subscale, social beliefs subscale, general extra-curricular beliefs subscale, and the personal trust subscale.

A comparative-longitudinal study of action-control beliefs and school performance: On the role of context

In a previous cross-sectional study comparing East and West Berlin children (Oettingen, Little, Lindenburger, & Baltes, 1994), we found that children in West Berlin had higher beliefs in their own performance potential than in East Berlin, but that the correlation between these personal agency beliefs and actual school performance was stronger in East Berlin than in West Berlin. In this study, we report on a three-wave longitudinal follow-up of the original samples wherein we examined the impact of change in the East Berlin education system, which adopted the West Berlin system between the second and third measurement occasions. As expected, we found that the context change did not affect the East Berlin children’s (grades 2-5, n = 198) lower mean levels of agency beliefs; however, the changes did reduce the correlations between the beliefs and performance to the levels observed in West Berlin (n = 381).

Agency, control, and means-ends about school performance in Lithuanian children (grades 4-6)

This study examined beliefs about factors affecting school performance and about self-agency and control in Lithuanian children (grades 4-6, N = 379). Results revealed much intercultural convergence with the samples from other countries in children’s beliefs about the importance of effort, ability, luck and unknown factors as causes of school performance. The only difference we found was in the beliefs about the importance of teachers. Their ratings were the lowest. But at the same time the ratings of the accessability of teacher as a mean of school success were high (second after effort).The agency and control beliefs were moderately and highly correlated with school grades (r = 0,29-0,57). The fourth graders showed higher agency and control beliefs and the lowest correlations with school performance. These findings are interpreted as beeing affected by positive changes in Lithuanian school system.

Agency beliefs in the power of advertising

Two opposing schools of thought on how advertising works have emerged. One, known as the ‘strong theory’, holds that advertising plays a centrally important part in the economic system of a country and is therefore a formidable market force. This view is generally associated with North American scholars and practitioners. An opposing view is that advertising is a rather weaker force, capable only of gently nudging or reminding consumers, rather than actually persuading them. This paper reports on a study of Australian advertising practitioners' beliefs in the power of advertising. Findings suggest that opinion overall is more weighted towards the strong theory, particularly among creative personnel. However, educational background/field of study, age and agency experience play significant roles in determining a practitioner's theoretical orientation. Business faculty graduates are more inclined towards the weak theory, while mass communications, journalism and art school graduates lean in the direction of the strong theory. Furthermore, younger practitioners, and those with less than seven years' agency experience, are more inclined towards the strong theory, but as they age and gain more experience, they tend towards a weak theory orientation.

Percepção de controle sobre o desempenho acadêmico de crianças em situação de pobreza

de crianças em situação de pobreza. Sessenta e um estudantes de primeira série do Ensino Fundamental, 30 meninos e 31 meninas, com sete a oito anos de idade responderam a uma escala de controle percebido (CAMI - Control, Agency, Means-Ends Interview) que avalia crenças de expectativas de controle, de capacidade e de estratégia com relação ao desempenho acadêmico. O desempenho acadêmico foi avaliado através do TOE (Teste de Desempenho Acadêmico) e dos resultados dos escores aprovado/reprovado no ano letivo. Análises correlacionais demonstraram relação entre controle percebido e desempenho acadêmico. Análises de variância revelaram diferenças na percepção de controle entre os grupos de idade e de gênero.

OLDER ADULTS' PERCEPTIONS OF CONTROL IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS

This study examined the utility of a new conceptualization for understanding older adults' perceptions of control in social situations. Fifty-four participants (Mage = 75.4 years) completed questionnaires and structured interviews assessing social beliefs. Agency beliefs (about possession of certain social resources) and means-ends beliefs (about the importance of certain social resources) were related to perceived control in social situations. Results indicated that perceived social control was predicted by agency beliefs for all four resources studied (social skills, effort, helpful/nice others, luck) and by the interaction of agency and means-ends beliefs for the social skills resource. Also, perceived social control was positively correlated with social satisfaction, which further supported the utility of this conceptualization.

Students’ goals and self-regulation in the classroom

This chapter argues for an understanding of action regulation as inextricably related to the motivational process of goal setting and planning. Within this conceptual framework our research has explored students’ action patterns, both in normal ongoing classroom situations and in stressful circumstances. Goals are emphasized as essential aspects of the motivational quality of activities, namely through the role they play in the regulation of action. In this study the detection of students’ behavioral goals is addressed. Several achievement and social goals are described and ways to assess students’ goal setting and planning processes are proposed. Strategies that students use to handle classroom stressors are explored. These include strategic flexible action, strategic rigid action, passive behavior, and disorganized behavior. These strategies represent distinct forms of action regulation. Relations between students’ strategies, which are viewed as indications of their control, and agency beliefs are also examined. Finally, classroom features, which might help or hinder students’ self-regulation are discussed, including teachers’ goals and students’ perceptions of teachers’ goals for classroom activities.

Japanese Children’s Action-Control Beliefs about School Performance

Guided by research on German, Russian, and American children, we tested whether the tripartite action-theory model of children’s psychological control generalises to Japanese children (grades 2-6, N 817). Specifically, we used the Control, Agency, and Means-ends Interview (CAMI) to assess whether Japanese children’s self-related agency beliefs, general control expectancies, and causality-relate d means-ends beliefs about their school performance are similar to those of children from other sociocultural contexts. The CAMI has shown strong cross-cultural validity, but it has not been tested in Japanese children. Because the CAMI measurement structure generally validated in this sample and the resulting action-control constructs showed many inter-cultural similarities, we concluded that the action-control beliefs generalise to Japanese children. The similarities likely reflect inter-cultural commonalities in teaching formats and everyday conceptions of performance in formal schooling contexts. In addition to these important similarities, however, we found inter-cultural differences in the self-related agency beliefs (i.e. patterns that were specific to this Japanese sample). For example, the role of luck and the relations between effort and ability showed unique patterns in these children (e.g. lower correlations than in other sociocultural settings).

Nuclear weapons concerns, agency beliefs, and social responsibility values in disarmament activism.

This study examined the roles of attitudes and beliefs in determining disarmament activism. It investigated the contributions of nuclear weapons concerns, perceptions of control, and social responsibility values to the determination of antinuclear activism beyond the effects of attitudes and attitude strength. It was found that concerns about the danger of nuclear weapons, perceptions of personal control, and social responsibility values accounted for a larger proportion of the variance of antinuclear activism than antinuclear attitudes and attitude strength combined. The findings were discussed in terms of the nature of attitudes and beliefs and the relevance of these factors to involvement in peace and other social issues in a global community.