Aged Beer Research Articles

Aging fingerprint characterization of beer using electronic nose

In this work, attempts were made in order to characterize the change of aroma of alcoholic and non alcoholic beers during the aging process by use of a metal oxide semiconductor based electronic nose. The aged beer samples were statistically characterized in several classes. Linear techniques as principal component analysis (PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analaysis (LDA) were performed over the data that revealed non alcoholic beer classes are separated except a partial overlapping between zones corresponding to two specified classes of the aged beers. A clear discrimination was not found among the alcoholic beer classes showing the more stability of such type of beer compared with non alcoholic beer. In this research, to classify the classes, two types of artificial neural networks were used: Probabilistic Neural Networks (PNN) with Radial Basis Functions (RBF) and FeedForward Networks with Backpropagation (BP) learning method. The classification success was found to be 90% and 100% for alcoholic and non alcoholic beers, respectively. Application of PNN showed the classification accuracy of 83% and 100%, respectively for the aged alcoholic and non alcoholic beer classes as well. Finally, this study showed the capability of the electronic nose system for the evaluation of the aroma fingerprint changes in beer during the aging process.

Improved Flavor Stability by Aging Beer in the Presence of Yeast

Unwanted flavor changes occur during beer storage. Because yeast has a large reducing activity on aging compounds, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of refermentation on flavor stability. It was shown that the addition of yeast to aged beer removed aged flavor almost completely. Furthermore, the addition of yeast to fresh beer decelerated beer aging considerably. Both a top-fermenting and a bottom-fermenting yeast strain were able to exert this effect, and it was clear that initiation of a real refermentation process by adding sugar was not required. Finally, several yeast concentrations were tested, and it appeared that even adding an amount as low as 10,000 yeast cells/mL was sufficient to slow beer aging. Nonetheless, the effect was more pronounced when higher concentrations were used.

The Influence of Hopping on Formation of Carbonyl Compounds During Storage of Beer

Improving beer flavour stability is an important brewing goal. Pilot scale brewing trials (50 L) were performed that focused on the determination of the influence of hop pellet dosage and dosage timing on carbonyl compounds in stored beer. The reducing activity of experimental worts, beers and stored beers appeared to depend on the hop pellet dose. Brews with lower amounts of hop antioxidants showed an enhanced formation of carbonyl compounds over the course of beer storage. A correlation between DPPH reducing activity and the content of some carbonyls, including the important markers 2-furfural and (E)-2-nonenal, was found. Fresh and aged beers hopped by different amounts of hop pellet doses were clearly distinguishable according to their carbonyl content using Cluster analysis. Results of the sensorial analysis corresponded to the analytical criteria values. Results of this study bring further evidence of the indispensable impact of hop antioxidants on the suppression of undesirable carbonyl compound formation in the course of beer staling, which can be significant in beers hopped by aroma hops. However, hop antioxidants are only one of many factors affecting beer staling.

Estimation of beer stability by sulphur dioxide and polyphenol determination. Evaluation of a Laccase-Sonogel-Carbon biosensor

The traditional methods used to evaluate parameters related to beer ageing have been tested, revised and criticised. With this aim, a sampling of lager beers has been carried out. Sulphur dioxide, polyphenols and antioxidant capacity have been determined in fresh and aged beer. Only sulphur dioxide concentration showed relevant differences after the ageing process. These results together with a correlation study provided information about the selectivity of the methodologies used and have made it clear that sulphur dioxide has an important role and polyphenols have an indirect role. Laccase-Sonogel-Carbon biosensor is proposed to determine polyphenols in beers instead of Folin–Ciocalteu assay due to its better selectivity, sensitivity and short assay times.

Comparison of hazes in freshly bottled and aged beers by multiple angle turbidimetry

The hazes of freshly bottled and aged pale lager beers determined with the 12° and 90° dual angle laboratory hazemeters and 10° to 90° range photogoniometer were compared and evaluated. The instruments were standardised in EBC formazin units. In freshly bottled beer, the forward (12°–25°) haze values were smaller approximately by a factor of three than the nephelometric (90°) values which yielded 0.33 EBC units. In aged beer, the forward haze was greater than the nephelometric one. Whereas the aged beer showed the greatest and the fresh beer the lowest intensity of scattered light, the formazin suspension intensity was in between. Due to the standardisation of the beer scattered intensities by relation to that of formazin, the standardised nephelometric haze in non-aged beer was greater than the forward haze, and vice versa in aged beer. The greater forward than the nephelometric haze in aged beer was caused by the growth of haze particles above the mean size of formazin particles which was larger than 2 μm as confirmed by the particle size distribution measurement.

Decrease of Aged Beer Aroma by the Reducing Activity of Brewing Yeast

The flavor profile of beer is subject to changes during storage. Since, possibly, yeast has an influence on flavor stability, the aim of this study was to examine if there is a direct impact of brewing yeast on aged aroma. This was achieved by refermentation of aged beers. It was shown that several aged aroma notes, such as cardboard, ribes, Maillard and Madeira, were removed almost entirely by brewing yeast, independently of the yeast or the beer type. This was explained by the reduction of aldehydes, mainly (E)-2-nonenal, Strecker aldehydes, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and diacetyl, to their corresponding alcohols. Furthermore, it became evident that the reducing capacity of brewing yeast is high, but that yeast strain and compound specific residual concentrations remained in the refermented beer independently of the initial concentration. Finally, it appeared that aldehydes were not only reduced but also formed during refermentation.

Volatile Compounds and the Changes in Their Concentration Levels during Storage in Beers Containing Varying Malt Concentrations

Volatile compounds in beers brewed with different amounts of malt were analyzed by using the stir bar sorptive extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. We identified 90 compounds-25 esters, 17 terpenes, 14 alcohols, 11 acids, 6 furans, 6 aroma compounds, 5 carbonyls, and other compounds. An analysis of aged beer suggested that the concentration levels of stale flavor compounds-beta-damascenone, gamma-nonalactone, ethyl cinnamate, and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol-in nonmalt beer were different from those in all-malt and standard beer. Additionally, concentrations of these compounds did not increase during storage in most nonmalt beer analyzed in this study. Nerolidol may be a good marker candidate regardless of the malt content.

Structure, Organoleptic Properties, Quantification Methods, and Stability of Phenolic Compounds in Beer—A Review

Beer composition changes through storage, altering the quality of the product. In the past decade, many papers have been devoted to the compounds responsible for aged-beer off-flavors, mainly trans-2-nonenal, methional, and dimethyltrisulfide. Due to their huge antioxidant activity, polyphenols have often been described as key compounds for limiting beer staling. Yet phenolic structures also evolve through storage. Low-molecular-weight phenols like 4-vinylsyringol can impart off-flavors in aged beer, whilst flavonoids strongly influence astringency, haze, and color. The instability of stilbenes, prenylchalcones, and derived flavanones could also modify their health potential through storage. After reviewing the structures and properties of all phenolic compounds found in beer, this paper will try to assess the impact of their degradation through aging. Extraction procedures for their quantification and treatments for their removal are also described.

EVALUATION OF BEER AGING USING ITS AUTOFLUORESCENCE

The studies of the applicability of beer autofluorescence in discrimination of differently aged beers are reported. The total luminescence and synchronous fluorescence spectra provided fingerprints of the beer samples and were used for classification purposes. Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis of the spectra revealed clustering of samples according to the aging procedure.

Determination of Furfural in Beer by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Solid-Phase Extraction

Furfural is a sensitive indicator of beer staling. A new solid-phase extraction (SPE) column PEP-SPE (Polar-Enhanced Polymer, 500 mg/6 mL) was used to develop a method for extraction of furfural from beer. The PEP-SPE column retains furfural with higher selectivity than the commonly used C 18 -SPE column. Satisfactory precisions were obtained with %RSD (n = 6) less than 2.2% for peak areas. Recovery rates were in the range of 99.7-100.1% due to the simple treatment and good resolution. The detection limit was 5 μg/L. Furfural concentration ranged from 10 to 32 μg/L in twelve fresh beer samples. A noticeable increase in furfural content was found after beer samples were kept at 35°C for seven days. The calculated correlation coefficient between taste panel scores for beer freshness and the furfural content of aged beer samples was -0.65, which showed a good inverse correlation between freshness marks and furfural content.

Decrease of 4-Vinylguaiacol during Beer Aging and Formation of Apocynol and Vanillin in Beer

In this study the decrease of 4-vinylguaiacol (4VG) during beer aging was investigated and the products that arise from it were identified. Two compounds, vanillin and apocynol, were identified in beer model solutions after forced aging and in naturally aged beers by GC-MS and HPLC-ECD analyses. Both account for up to 85% of the decrease of 4VG. Only in the presence of substantial amounts of oxygen in the bottle headspace was vanillin detected. Apocynol [4-(1-hydroxyethyl)-2-methoxyphenol] was found to be the main degradation product, and its formation was shown to be highly dependent on the beer pH. Because both apocynol and vanillin have a clear vanilla-like aroma, the decrease of 4-vinylguaiacol during beer aging might impart a shift from a clove-like aroma in fresh specialty beers (such as wheat beers and other top-fermented blond or dark ales) to a sweeter, more vanilla-like flavor impression of aged specialty beers.

Investigation of New Indexes to Evaluate Aging of Bottled Lager Beer

To determine the extent of lager beer staling accurately, six singlet analysis evaluation parameters were investigated, including 1,1′-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging amount, N-tert-butyl-α-phenylnitrone associated with electron spin resonance spectrometry (PBN-ESR), total reactive antioxidant potential (TRAP), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (5-HMF), and trans-2-nonenal, which are based on free-radical reactions and off-flavor compound formation. The singlet indexes were well correlated with natural aging time and stale-flavor taste judgment when evaluating aging beer of the same quality. However, there was an obvious limit when assessing beer samples of different quality and different degrees of aging. These singlet indexes were combined and processed by statistical analysis and mathematical methods, and complex evaluation indexes were brought forward, which resulted in a better correlation with beer aging compared with the singlet indexes. The free-radical index (FRI) was constructed based on the reactions of free-radical scavenging, and the compound index (CI) was based on the formation of stale flavor compounds. The stability index (SI) integrated the two aspects into one evaluation index using a relatively simple formula. Over the whole course of beer aging, FRI and CI increased, while SI decreased. FRI was a better predictor when measuring the moderately staled beer, which had a natural aging time of more than 90 days (or 3 months). CI was more applicable to the extremely aged beer, which had a shelf time of more than 180 days (or 6 months). To assess the general degree of beer aging, SI is put forward as a new and efficient index for beer samples at every staling stage. The research proved that complex evaluation indexes provided more applicable parameters for evaluating beer aging. Of them, SI was the best and simplest measurement for determining the extent of lager beer aging at any staling stage compared with singlet and other complex evaluating indexes.

Formation of α-Dicarbonyl Compounds in Beer during Storage of Pilsner

With the aim of determining the formation of alpha-dicarbonyl intermediates during beer aging on the shelf, alpha-dicarbonyls were identified and quantified after derivatization with 1,2-diaminobenze to generate quinoxalines. The sensory effects of alpha-dicarbonyls were evaluated by the quantification of key Strecker aldehydes and by GC-olfactometry (GCO)analysis of beer headspace using solid phase microextraction. Four alpha-dicarbonyls, reported here for the first time, were detected in fresh and aged beers, three were derived from the 2,3-enolization pathway of mono- and disaccharides, and the fourth was derived from the epimerization of 3-deoxy-2-hexosulose. Ten alpha-dicarbonyls were quantified during beer processing and during different periods of beer aging at 28 degrees C. The aging periods were from 15 to 105 days. During beer aging, 1-deoxydiuloses were produced and degraded, while 1,4-dideoxydiuloses were produced at the highest rates. The GCO analysis indicated that forced beer aging increased the amounts of furaneol, trans-2-nonenal, and phenylacetaldehyde. The blockage of alpha-dicarbonyls inhibited the accumulation of sensory-active aldehydes in the beer headspace.

The Impact of Low Heat Load and Activated Carbon Treatment of Second Wort on Beer Taste and Flavour Stability

There is a vast repository of knowledge regarding improving beer taste stability via wort boiling. However, as far as we are aware, there are few reports dealing with taste stability improvement in terms of quality characteristics by boiling, under proper conditions, the first wort and second worts separately. In this study, more than 50 brews in a pilot scale brewing facility were conducted to investigate suitable boiling conditions for first and second worts. When the second wort (i.e., the last 10% of the total filtered wort) was kept under a low heat load atmosphere (78°C), casted to the boiling first wort, and then re-boiled for 10 min, the produced beer exhibited no significant differences compared to that of the general beer in terms of taste stability. However, when an adsorbent (bentonite, silica gel, activated carbon or PVPP) was individually added to the second wort and the same boiling procedure was performed, the oxidized flavour of the forced aged beer, treated with activated carbon, significantly decreased, compared to that of the general brew (level of significance a = 0.01). The data from the chemical analysis and fermentation behavior are presented.

Involvement of Flavanoids in Beer Color Instability during Storage

Besides Maillard reactions, structural rearrangements of flavan-3-ol monomers cause color changes in beer during storage. Acetone/water-soluble fractions (70/30, v/v) of three lager beers of the same batch, differently stabilized before bottling in glass or poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) bottles, were monitored by normal-phase HPLC-ESI(-)-MS/MS over a 1-year period of storage at 20 degrees C. In parallel, beer color was monitored by the European Brewery Convention assay. The evolution of color was similar in the silica gel-filtered beer to that in identically bottled and stored poly(vinylpolypyrrolidone)-treated samples, despite the high flavanoid dimers content of the former. On the other hand, color evolved more rapidly in the PET bottle, suggesting a key role of oxygen. The kinetics was still increased in model media containing (+)-catechin, while no color was detected when normal-phase HPLC-fractionated dimers or trimers were investigated. (+)-Catechin emerged as the precursor of less polar products, characterized by a yellow-brown color. MS/MS enabled us to identify these products as issued from the oxidation and intramolecular additions of dehydrodicatechin B4. Similar structures were found in aged beers spiked with (+)-catechin. Beer storage in the absence of oxygen and at low temperature is recommended so as to minimize the synthesis of such pigments.

The influence of wort aeration and yeast preoxygenation on beer staling processes

The influence of oxygen on the beer staling process is considered to be of major importance. Therefore, the impact of wort aeration, which is thought to cause wort oxidation processes, on beer ageing, has been examined. Pilsner and ale beers were produced with the classical wort aeration technique or by the use of the yeast preoxygenation process, in which yeast cells are exposed to oxygen before fermentation. The staling of these beers was studied using P&T GC–MS and sensory analysis. GC–MS analyses of the natural and forced aged beers showed no significant differences between the two treatments. Sensory evaluation of natural and forced beers confirmed these results. Thus, normal wort aeration (8 mg/l) does not appear to determine flavour stability in a direct manner. This is probably due to the short contact of the wort with oxygen at low temperatures before the onset of fermentation.

Evaluation of PDMS-Based Extraction Techniques and GC-TOFMS for the Analysis of Off-Flavor Chemicals in Beer

Various formats employing polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as an extraction medium prior to gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS) analysis were investigated to measure off-flavors in aged beer. The techniques included stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE), headspace sorptive extraction (HSSE), purge and trap, and closed-loop stripping (CLS). Although all PDMS extraction methods worked well, SBSE appeared to provide the most accurate quantitation and was capable of detecting the most odor-active compounds. The peak deconvolution capability of the Leco Pegasus TOFMS was critical to the detection and accurate quantitation of key off-flavor chemicals. Compared with fresh control beer, increases in furfural; furfuryl ethyl ether; furyl hydroxymethyl ketone; 2,4-dodecadienal, (E,E)-; benzeneacetic acid ethyl ester; β-damascenone; and 3-pyridinecarboxylic acid ethyl ester (also known as nicotinic acid ethyl ester) were observed in beer samples incubated for 12 weeks at 30°C, and increases in dimethyl disulfide, dimethyltrisulfide, and benzeneacetaldehyde occurred in beer samples exposed to sunlight for 8 hr.

Correlation of Malt Quality Parameters and Beer Flavor Stability: Multivariate Analysis

Malt is known to have an impact on beer flavor stability mainly due to the presence of antioxidants. In this study, five barley varieties were malted at industrial and micro scale, and quality parameters of the resulting malts were measured (diastatic power, friability, beta-glucan content, antiradical power, reducing power, lipoxygenase activity, and nonenal potential) and correlated with the sensory data obtained for the corresponding fresh and forced aged beers. A statistical strategy using multiple linear regressions was applied to explore relationships between the malt chemical parameters and beer sensory data, showing antiradical power as the major contribution of malt to beer flavor stability. Additionally, the measured antiradical power, which is well correlated with the polyphenolic content, was found to be very similar for malt and barley, emphasizing the key role of barley endogenous polyphenols.

Identification of a Stale-Beer-like Odorant in Extracts of Naturally Aged Beer

For a long time, beer staling has been a prime concern in brewery research. Yet, to improve flavor stability, better knowledge of all chemicals involved is still needed. From our aroma extract dilu-tion analyses (AEDA) applied to naturally aged lager beers emerged an old-beer-like odorant at RICP-SIL 5 CB = 1532 and RIFFAP = 2809, with a FD value close to that of trans-2-nonenal (the well-known cardboard off-flavor found in aged beers). Specific phenol extraction, GC cold trapping, and mass spectrometry (electron impact and chemical ionization) enabled us to identify it as 4-vinylsyringol. Although already mentioned in some fresh beers, this compound had never been highlighted as involved in the aging process of lager beers.

Influence of Lauter Turbidity on Wort Composition, Fermentation Performance and Beer Quality in Large-Scale Trials

Different lauter turbidities (standard 43 EBC vs. turbid 82 EBC on average) were obtained by variation of the lauter procedure, particularly deep raking, in this study. The resulting worts were used for repitching the respective yeast into six subsequent fermentation cycles. The resulting beers were investigated in terms of flavour quality, flavour stability, non-biological stability and foam stability. Worts gained from turbid lautering showed very similar analytical data compared to the controls (except for a slight but significant increase in linoleic acid). There was an improvement in fermentation performance in terms of a pH decrease and a decrease in extract. The resulting beers were quite similar, and the staling indicators increased slightly, but not significantly, due to turbid lautering. Both types of beer were evaluated on tasting as being of a high flavour quality and neither a professional panel nor a non-professional (customer) panel was able to distinguish the difference, between standard and turbid lautering, in terms of fresh and forced aged beers. Due to turbid lautering the non-biological stability appeared to be slightly, but not significantly, decreased while on the other hand the foam stability was significantly improved due to turbid lautering. In conclusion, fermentation performance may be improved by more turbid lautering, and the negative consequences often reported for the resulting beers appear to be overestimated, since the quality parameters of the final beers had not deteriorated significantly.