Afromontane Research Articles

Coffee, child labour, and education: Examining a triple social–ecological trade-off in an Afromontane forest landscape

In biodiversity rich agriculture–forest moasic landscapes in south-western Ethiopia, the production of coffee and food crops, including guarding them from forest-dwelling mammals, requires a high input of labour, which is supplied partly by children. Through field observations and interviews with smallholders, we studied the extent of children’s participation in coffee production and food crop guarding, its impact on school attendance and implications for sustainable development. The findings revealed that the extent of children’s participation in such work is correlated with the level of household’s income and residential location, i.e. near versus far from forests or in coffee versus non-coffee areas. Child labour and school absenteeism linked to coffee production and crop guarding are widespread problems. Some of the measures taken to mitigate the problem of school absenteeism were coercive and posed threats to poor households. The paper concludes that child work in coffee production and crop protection is at the cost of school attendance for many children, which represents a critical social justice issue and a trade-off with the economic and environmental values of the forest. Reducing poverty would likely mitigate the problem of child labour and school absenteeism and promote synergistic development in the region.

Density and characteristics of tree cavities inside and outside Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda.

Tree cavities, formed by animal excavation or processes of fungal decay and mechanical damage, may provide nesting, roosting, or resting opportunities to many invertebrate and vertebrate species. Although cavity availability has been linked to patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning elsewhere, there have been few such studies in the Afrotropics. Here, we present a baseline survey of cavity availability inside the high elevation (2200–3714 m) Afromontane forest ecosystems of Volcanoes National Park (VNP), Rwanda. We aimed to provide such reference data in the form of summary statistics on cavity density and characteristics in a collection of 400 m2 plots that together cover 8.8 ha inside and 0.68 ha outside VNP. We also explored the relative importance of fungal decay vs. excavators in the formation of cavities, tested for the relative role of standing dead trees and living trees as cavity substrates, considered differences in diameter and height between cavity‐bearing trees and trees without cavities, tested whether cavity density varies across elevation, and determined the orientation of cavity entrances. We found 109 cavities in 52 cavity‐bearing trees (dominated by Hagenia abyssinica) inside VNP, for a density of 12.4 cavities and 5.9 cavity‐bearing trees per hectare, and none outside the park. More cavities were decay‐formed (n = 90) than excavated (n = 19), and though most cavities were found in living trees (n = 44), the number of cavities in dead trees (n = 8) was high relative to dead tree substrate availability. We also found that cavity‐bearing trees were larger than those without cavities, that excavated cavities were predominantly oriented toward the southeast and decay‐formed cavities to the northeast, and that cavity density declined with increases in elevation. Our results show that large and dead trees of particular species are important cavity substrates that need to be given attention in conservation and management, as is clearly illustrated by the lack of cavities in the highly managed Eucalyptus stands outside VNP.

Effect of Forest Management on Carbon Stock of Tropical Moist Afromontane Forest

Moist tropical forests have a significant role in provisioning and regulating ecosystem services. However, these forests are under threat of deforestation and forest degradation. In Ethiopia, the moist evergreen Afromontane forests have the potential for carbon storage and support a high diversity of plant species. However, it is under severe threat of deforestation and degradation.This investigation was conducted to obtain adequate information on the carbon stock potential of the moist Afromontane forest of southwestern Ethiopia. A comparison of carbon stock was conducted between disturbed and undisturbed forests. A systematic sampling design was applied for recording woody species and soil data. A total of 100 main plots of 400 m2 were laid to record trees and shrubs with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm. The soil data were collected from 1 m2 subplots established at the four corners and the center of each main plot. The DBH and height were measured to calculate the aboveground carbon of trees and shrubs with DBH ≥ 5 cm. A total of 68 tree and shrub species belonging to 59 genera and 33 families were recorded. The mean carbon stock density was 203.80 ± 12.38 t·ha–1 (aboveground carbon stock) and 40.76 ± 2.47 t·ha–1 (belowground carbon stock). The highest proportion of aboveground carbon (t·ha–1) (42.34%) was contributed by a few tree individuals with DBH > 70 cm. The soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) (t·ha–1) for the depth of 0–30 cm is ranging from 58.97 to 198.33 across plots; the mean is 117.16 ± 3.15. The carbon stored in the moist Afromontane forest indicates its huge potential for climate change mitigation. Therefore, for the enhancement of forest biodiversity and carbon sequestration effective conservation measure and sound management approach is essential.

Sustainability analysis of the Munessa- Shashemene dry Afromontane natural forest from local communities’ perspectives

ABSTRACT Assessing attitudes and perceptions of local communities is a crucial step in forest management and planning that can have major consequences for sustainability. However, empirical studies on sustainability analysis from local communities’ perceptions are scarce especially on the Afromontane forests. Therefore, this paper analyzes the sustainability of Munessa-Shashemene dry Afromontane natural and plantation forests from local communities’ perceptions. The data were collected from randomly selected 200 households, five key informants, and six focused group discussions. The results revealed that the majority (85.5%) of respondents influenced the sustainability of the Munessa-Shashemene dry Afromontane natural forest based on the current forest product utilization trends and perceptions of the economically preferred tree species in the forest. The forest products have been decreasing over time due to deforestation and degradation of the Munessa-Shashemene forest (93.5%) and economically valuable tree species were substituted by inferior one for various forest products. Consequently, as an area with both general and particularly economically valuable indigenous tree species, the Munessa-Shashemene forest can be sustained by implementing intensive silvicultural operations and enrichment planting for economically favored tree species along with Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, and Myrsine melanophloeos. Further research investigations are needed on the restoration techniques of degraded preferred tree species to enhance sustainability and reduce future challenges related to forest degradation.

Diversity, Structural, and Regeneration Analysis of Woody Species in the Afromontane Dry Forest of Harego, Northeastern Ethiopia

The study was conducted in the Harego dry Afromontane forest, Northeastern Ethiopia, to analyze woody species composition, diversity, structure, and regeneration status. To collect the vegetation data, a total of 67 sample plots measuring 400 m 2 20 m × 20 m were laid systematically. Species identity, abundance, height, and diameter at breast height (DBH) were recorded for each sample plot. Diversity, structural, and regeneration status were analyzed for the forest. A total of 50 woody species representing 35 families and 44 genera were identified and recorded. According to the IUCN Red List Category, Rhus glutinosa A. Rich and Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. are vulnerable species. Fabaceae was the dominant family, and of the total species, 27 were shrubs, 19 were trees, and 4 were climbers. The species accumulation curve indicates that the majority of plant species in the study area were captured by our sampling efforts. The values of true Shannon (N1 = 17) and true Simpson (N2 = 11) indicate that species in the Harego forest are more or less evenly distributed. The abundance-frequency ratio of all woody species (WI = >0.05) indicates the heterogeneity of species composition. The total density and basal area were 4400 stems ha−1 and 9.66 m2 ha−1, respectively. The majority of the species fallen into the lower IVI classes. The diameter and height class distribution revealed an inverted J-shape. The increase in population demand and disturbance shows a high variation in stand structure and hampered natural regeneration, which needs immediate conservation actions.

Woody Plant Conservation Value of Three Contrasting Forest Management Regimes in Southwest Ethiopia

The future of the Afromontane forest of southwest Ethiopia is highly influenced by coffee management intensity. The study was conducted to investigate the woody species conservation value of a human-modified forest in southwest Ethiopia. We assessed woody species composition, regeneration and forest stand structure across three different management regimes (i.e., natural forest, coffee forest and coffee agroforest using 189 plots of 400 m2 (20 m × 20 m). A total of 64 species belonging to 33 families were identified and recorded across the three forest management regimes. About 83% of the recorded woody species were maintained in the coffee agroforest. The three forest types shared 61% of the recorded woody species. The coffee agroforest had maintained four strata or layers of stand structure. Nevertheless, the total abundance, density and basal area of woody species decreased from the natural forest to coffee forest and coffee agroforest. The Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) showed significant difference between the natural forest, coffee forest and coffee agroforest (Global RAnosim = 0.36, p < 0.001). Similar regeneration patterns were recorded under the forest management regimes. Coffee agroforests simplify the woody plant composition and stand structure of the Afromontane forest in southwest Ethiopia.

Ecological Assessment of Woody Plant Diversity and the Associated Threats in Afromontane Forest of Ambericho, Southern Ethiopia

Abstract Mountainous ecosystems provide social, economic, and environmental services at different scales. Nonetheless, currently, they have been exposed to environmental degradation risks. This study was conducted to investigate woody plant species diversity and threats to the study forest. Systematic sampling was employed to collect vegetation data from fifty 400 m2 sample plots along five transect lines. Vegetation and the environmental variables were recorded from each plot. Eighty randomly sampled households were selected for socioeconomic data. Descriptive statistics and ranking exercises were employed. The vegetation classification was performed using the R program version 2.15.2. The species diversity, richness, and evenness were computed. The result showed that five plant communities were recognized. A total of 99 woody plants belonging to 87 genera and 50 families were identified, of which 13 % were endemic. The total basal area of the study forest was 3.40 m2ha-1, and the forest was characterized by a bell-shaped population structure identified by poor regeneration and recruitment. With increasing altitude, there was a significant decrease in human impacts, grazing, and the number of plant species. About 90 % of the informants disclosed deforestation as the major threat to forest cover change, whereas 84 % of them recommended forest restoration as a tangible measure. There was a high deforestation rate of the selected woody species (e.g., Arundinaria alpina) and high expansion of agriculture at the fringes of the forest. This requires promoting forest land rehabilitation activities, nature tourism, establishing partnerships with communities on the forest management, consolidating village-level institutions and developing livelihood alternatives for communities at the local governments and the community level to restore the degraded forest.

GIS investigation of the fire history of Jonkershoek Nature Reserve

Fire regimes have the potential to disturb ecological aspects of a landscape and/or contribute to the maintenance of the biological diversity. Thus, a gauge of the impact of planned and unplanned fire regimes is vital to South Africa’s national reserves. The Jonkershoek Nature Reserve in the Western Cape is characterized by the occurrence of indigenous Fynbos and Afromontane Forest vegetation. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) can aid the management and preservation of indigenous vegetational species. This study used knowledge of the ecological conditions of the Reserve, historical fire data, Landsat TM and Landsat OLI imagery, and geospatial analysis to investigate the impact of the fire regimes in the Reserve. Image classification was carried out from 2005 to 2015 to determine the burn patterns, with the process being aided by the fire regime history from 1970 to 2015. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis was carried out to determine how abiotic factors, such as elevation, slope and aspect, impact fires in the Reserve. The assessment of fires included the ascertainment of their location, coverage, and frequency, the Normalised Burn Ratio (NBR), the differenced Normalised Burn Ratio (dNBR) and the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). There were 39 fires recorded in the Jonkershoek Nature Reserve from 1970 to 2015. The largest fire events were recorded in 1999 (26503.6 ha.) and 2015 (8363.0 ha.). The lowest area of fire impact recorded occurred in the years 2010 (0.15ha.), 1973 (1.1 ha.) and 1987 (3.1 ha.). With an overall classification accuracy of 94.17%, the Landsat OLI imagery performed better with an overall classification accuracy of 94.17% than the Landsat TM at 75.83%. The OLS regression showed that fire severity was positively correlated to NDVI and elevation. This may suggest that regions of healthy vegetation at any altitude may be susceptible to burnings if there is sufficient vegetation to fuel a fire. The OLS was negatively correlated to slope and aspect. This may impact fire risk as steeper slopes may have vegetation growing in their fire shadow.

New insights into the formation of biodiversity hotspots of the Kenyan flora

AbstractAimThis study aimed to investigate the distribution patterns of plant diversity in Kenya, how climatic fluctuations and orogeny shaped them, and the formation of its β‐diversity.LocationKenya, East Africa.TaxonAngiosperms.MethodsWe quantified patterns of turnover and nestedness components of phylogenetic β‐diversity for angiosperm species among neighbouring sites using a well‐resolved phylogenetic tree and extensive distribution records from public databases and other published sources. We applied clustering methods to delineate biota based on pairwise similarities among multiple sites and used a random assembly null model to assess the effects of species abundance distribution on phylogenetic β‐diversity.ResultsThe phylogenetic turnover of the Kenyan flora, intersecting with the biodiversity hotspots Eastern Afromontane, Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, and Horn of Africa, shows a non‐monotonic pattern along a latitudinal gradient that is strongly structured into volcanic and coastal areas. The other areas are mainly dominated by phylogenetic nestedness, even in the eastern part of the equatorial region parallel to the volcanic area. Phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic structure analyses explain the mechanism of the observed phylogenetic turnover and nestedness patterns. We identified five phytogeographical regions in Kenya: the Mandera, Turkana, Volcanic, Pan Coastal and West Highland Regions.ConclusionsVariations in turnover gradient and coexistence are highly dependent on the regional biogeographical history resulting from climatic fluctuations and long‐lasting orogeny, which jointly shaped the biodiversity patterns of the Kenyan flora. The nestedness component dominated climatically unstable regions and is presumed to have been caused by heavy local species extinction and recolonization from the Volcanic Region. The high turnover component in climatically stable regions may have preserved old lineages and the prevalence of endemic species within narrow ranges.

Late Pleistocene montane forest fire return interval estimates from Mount Kenya

AbstractPast forest fire events and fire frequencies are reconstructed with sediment–charcoal records at lake catchment spatial scales. Few quantitative palaeofire analyses exist in tropical montane forests, where fire return intervals are long (decadal and centennial scales) because of the infrequency of fire weather and fuel conditions. Fire return intervals are a key characteristic of fire regimes and changing fire frequencies rapidly alter land cover compositions and vegetation structure. Charcoal records from small lakes with relatively small catchments covered with dense forest provide an opportunity to reconstruct low‐frequency, high‐severity fires through a time series decomposition approach to identify charcoal peaks above a varying background rate as a proxy for palaeofire events. The sediment core from Rumuiku wetland on Mount Kenya, equatorial eastern Africa, accumulated a nearly linear age–depth model and provided a high temporal resolution (10 years cm–1) sieved charcoal count record (>125 µm). Pollen analysis showed a significant change in montane forest assemblage occurred at 21 200 cal abpfrom a montane forest with abundantPodocarpusandJuniperusto a forest with more abundantHagenia. This change in forest altered the vegetation composition and structure with concomitant changes to the fire regime. Forest biomass in theHageniaforests decreased and it is likely that fire activity qualitatively changed toward lower intensity and lower severity fires. The quantitative fire event reconstruction focuses on the interval from 27 000 to 16 500 cal a bp and the older montane forest that experienced higher severity fires from 27 000 to 21 200 cal abp,which reconstructed a temporally heterogeneous fire regime with fire return intervals that ranged from 30–430 years and a mean of 120 years (median 160 years) in the catchment. These are the first estimates of fire return intervals of mountain forests in eastern Africa. We then explore the potential for further comparative research and incremental research contributions to improve quantitative and qualitative palaeofire research in tropical forest ecosystems. We discuss the potential to use these types of data for characterizing variables of fire regimes prior to ostensibly significant modification by anthropogenic activity as well as during the recent past as human land use pressures increased within Afromontane forests.

Trends in plant ecology research in Ethiopia (1969-2019): Systematic analysis

Background: The current status of plant ecology research in Ethiopia is unknown with the result that it is challenging to judge the impact of existing research on policy development and conservation actions.Objectives: The objective of this paper was to systematically analyse the trends in plant ecological research in Ethiopia over the past 50 years.Methods: The inclusion and exclusion of articles for analysis was carried out using the Reporting Standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses (ROSES) flow diagram developed for systematic review/meta-analysis.Results: The number of articles published, authors and collaboration has increased dramatically since the 1960s. Most of the research (52.6%) focused on the Dry evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex (DAF) and Moist evergreen Afromontane Forest (MAF) vegetation types. Of the remaining vegetation types, woodlands (14.3%) i.e. Acacia–Commiphora woodland and bushland proper (ACW), and Combretum–Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland (CTW), desert and semi-desert scrubland (DSS) (2.3%), and the Afroalpine (AA) and Ericaceous Belt (EB) (1.5%) received comparatively little attention. Classical plant ecology themes and descriptive plant community studies were dominant over the last five decades in contrast to the focus on contemporary themes globally. Reproductive and dispersal ecology of invasive plant species and pollination ecology seem to be largely neglected topics. Furthermore, the recommendations forwarded by most of the articles reviewed (38.1%, n = 51) were not result-based. Conclusions: As a future direction, the Ethiopian government should develop a project database for both completed and ongoing projects.

Three spatially separate records confirm the presence of and provide a range extension for the giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea in Kenya

AbstractPangolins are some of the most overexploited but least studied mammals. The giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea is the largest of the eight pangolin species, measuring up to 180 cm in length and weighing up to 40 kg. It is a nocturnal, solitary species that occurs at low densities and little is known regarding its biology and ecology. It is distributed widely across the rainforests and forest savannah mosaics of equatorial Africa but its exact range extent is unknown. Apart from a single record in Kenya predating 1971, the eastern limit of its range was thought only to extend to central Uganda and western Tanzania. Here we present three spatially separate records confirming the presence of this species in Kenyan Afromontane forests. The three records are c. 120 km apart and c. 500 km east of the nearest confirmed giant pangolin population in Uganda. These records represent a significant range extension for the species and highlight the biodiversity and conservation importance of the Afromontane forests of western Kenya.

THE INFLUENCE OF SEASONS ON METAL BIOACCUMULATIONAND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SENTINEL ORGANISMS IN SOUTHAFRICAN URBAN FORESTS

Variations in Al, Fe and Mn concentrations in soil, leaf litter, moss, lichen and pill millipedes, as well as the induced oxidative stress effect of metals on the organisms, between the dry and the wet season within two Afromontane forests in the Western Cape were investigated. The two forests in the closest proximity of the Cape Town city centre and urban pollution sources were chosen to determine the difference of metal contamination between the dry, hot and cold, wet season. Three sampling sites were chosen within each forest at different altitudes on Table Mountain, as well asa control site, where the soil, leaf litter and each organism were randomly collected in both the dry and the wet seasons for metal and biochemical analysis. The metals in the wet season in both of the forests showed higher concentrations, as did the forest closest to the Cape Town city centre.This is indicative of higher levels of pollution due to increased anthropogenic activities in the wetseason. Oxidative stress in organisms was apparent in the varying tGSH levels, of which the dryseason mostly revealed the higher concentrations. Oxidative lipid damage (measured as MDA) levels were generally increased during the wet season when the metal concentrations were higher as a result of prominent brown haze episodes in winter. Urban forest ecosystems in urban cities may suffer irreparable damage resulting from metal contamination, more so in the colder wet season.

Soil seed bank composition and aboveground vegetation in dry Afromontane forest patches of Northwestern Ethiopia

The species composition in the aboveground vegetation and soil seed bank (SSB) were described for the dry Afromontane forest patches of Northwestern Ethiopia. Plots (30 × 30 m) were established to collect the vegetation and environmental data. Soil samples were collected for the soil bank study from the small plots measuring 10 cm × 10 cm from four soil layers. Shannon Weiner index and evenness were used to assess the species diversity and richness of the forest. Density, DBH, basal area, frequency, and importance value indices (IVI) of woody species were computed to characterize the vegetation structure of the forest. Results indicate the presence of 176 plant species belonging to 80 families. The Shannon diversity index and evenness values of the study area were 2.79 and 0.95, respectively were medium, compared to other dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia. The total basal area and density of woody species were 51.42 m2 ha−1 and 2679.33 individual ha−1, respectively. The most dominant species as and indicated by their important value index (lVI) was Prunus africana (17.97). A total of 2133 seedlings belonging to 44 species and 27 families were identified from the soil seed bank, with a viable seed density of 4636.95seeds/m2. The species composition of the seed bank was dominated by 29 herb species (65.9%) compared to 2 tree species, which accounted for only 4.54% of the total number of species. The highest number of species density was recorded in the litter and the upper 3 cm layer of the soil and gradually decreased with increasing depth. The Similarity between soil seed bank species composition and aboveground vegetation was low and conclude that the regeneration potential of the forest from seed bank is limited. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that emerged seedlings from the soil seed bank were significantly influenced by elevation and soil cation exchange capacity. The natural regeneration process of soil seed bank should be assisted through transplanting indigenous tree species in to the forests to accelerate the restoration of the vegetation and conservation and sustainable utilization of the reaming of forest patches is a necessity.

Woody Species Composition, Plant Communities, and Environmental Determinants in Gennemar Dry Afromontane Forest, Southern Ethiopia.

Dry Afromontane forests in Ethiopia are vital for the conservation of plant diversity and climate change mitigation. However, these forest resources are rapidly degrading and shrinking, necessitating empirical scientific investigations to ensure their successful conservation and long-term management. As a result, this study was conducted to evaluate the composition, plant communities, and environmental determinants of woody species in the Gennemar dry Afromontane forest of southern Ethiopia. Environmental variables such as altitude, aspect, and geographical location were recorded from 46 plots of 20 × 20 m for trees and 92 subplots of 10 × 10 m for shrubs were laid along 10 transect lines. Vegetation structure, diversity, vegetation classification, importance value index (IVI) and correlation with environmental parameters were analyzed. A total of 55 woody species belonging to 51 genera and 34 families were identified. Among the species identified, Jasminum stans, Maytenus addat, and Pittosporum abyssinicum were endemic to Ethiopia. Celastraceae (with 659 individuals) was the most dominant family, followed by Cupressaceae (268 individuals) and Myrsinaceae (222 individuals). Four plant communities were identified: Syzygium guineense-Mystroxylon aethiopicum, Maytenus arbutifolia-Podocarpus falcatus, Myrsine africana-Erica arborea, and Juniperus procera-Carissa spinarum. Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falcatus, and Maytenus arbutifolia were species with the highest IVI, while Maesa lanceolata, Rhamnus prinoides, and Gnidia glauca had the lowest. The DBH class distribution shows an inverted J-shaped distribution. As DBH increases, the number of individuals decreases in the higher DBH class. The distribution of plant communities and the composition of the species depend on altitude and topographic aspects. The study found that the dry Afromontane Forest is rich in species and that it should be prioritized for conservation to protect endemic and native species. Decisive elements such as the type of species, altitude, and topographic aspects must be considered for forestry activities.

New faunistical and taxonomic data on ptyctimous mites (Acari, Oribatida) of Malawi

Seven new species of the family Phthiracaridae, Arphthicarus diversus sp. nov., Arphthicarus parasculptilis sp. nov., Arphthicarus quasitrichosus sp. nov., Notophthiracarus dissimilis sp. nov., Notophthiracarus insolitus sp. nov., Notophthiracarus paralineolatus sp. nov., and Atropacarus (Hoplophorella) levidensus sp. nov., are described and figured from soils of Afromontane forests from Mulanje Mts., Zomba Mts., and Dedza Mts., in South Malawi. A comparison of morphological similarities with the most closely related species is presented. Two species Acrotritia paraardua Niedbała et Starý, 2015, and Phthiracarus anonymus Grandjean, 1933 are redescribed and figured. In total 22 species of ptyctimous mites are recorded from forest soil in Malawi, 11 of them are new records for oribatid fauna of Malawi.

Recent resettlement programs, as drivers for Afromontane forest loss in the Hawa-Galan district of Ethiopia

Recent resettlement programs, as drivers for Afromontane forest loss in the Hawa-Galan district of Ethiopia

Soil organic carbon stocks in the forests of different continents

Carbon stocks in soil vary substantially across the globe depending on the type of forests, their locations, and soil depths. We applied meta-analysis to 64 relevant published data with no restriction of published date, country, and journals. However, it was always kept in mind to include high impacted journals. The aim of this review was to evaluate whether soil organic carbon (SOC) varies with forest types, soil depths, and altitudes. Globally, the SOC stocks in the forests were found in the order of Boreal forest (BF) > Subalpine forest (SAF) > Temperate forest (TeF) > Afromontane forest (AfMF) > Montane forest (MF)> Subtropical forest (SF) > Alpine forest (AF) > Tropical forest (TF) ranging from 64.3 t/ha to 206.6 t/ha, the minimum is in tropical forest and maximum in the boreal forest. The SOC stocks were also found varied with soil depths and forests of different continents too. The maximum value of SOC stocks was 366.94 t/ha in 0-40 cm soil depth and the minimum value was 20.16 t/ha in the 80-100 cm soil depth. Linear relationship of SOC stocks was obtained with altitudes, the value increases along the increasing elevations. In conclusion, SOC stocks varied as forests, soil depths, and elevations as well.

Estimating the total ecosystem services value of Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspots in response to landscape dynamics

Ecosystem Service value (ESV) is a technique of assigning monetary value to the services and goods of an ecosystem. The rapid change in land-use land cover (LULC) is a major factor for the change in the capacity of Ecosystem Services (ES). Understanding LULC change and its impact on ESV is vital for decision-making processes. We quantify the spatiotemporal variation of ESV of the Kaffa biosphere reserve in association with LULC dynamics, which is part of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot areas. Eight LULC types were identified following a supervised classification using a maximum likelihood technique in ArcGIS 10.5. The ES coefficients published by Costanza and others in 2014 were used to estimate the monetary value through the benefit transfer method. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to control the effect of coefficients on the estimated ESV. The results showed declining of ESV from US$ 5818 million to US$ 5536.9 million from 1986 to 2019 and are expected to decline to US$ 5222.8 million in 2049. The change in ESV revealed a total loss of 4.8%. The reasons for the decline in ESV of the biosphere reserve were the conversion of forestland, grassland, and wetland to settlement and agricultural areas. From the land-use types, the contribution of wetland, forest, and agriculture was the most dominant land use in ESV. Genetic resources, climate regulation, water regulation, and recreation were the highest contributors to the total ESV. We conclude that the cause for the decline of ESV is a land-use change that caused ecosystem degradation.

Climate refugia for three Afromontane forest‐dependent bird species in south‐eastern South Africa

AbstractAimPleistocene climate shifts were influential in shaping biodiversity patterns for forest‐dependent species. Within southern Africa, palaeoclimatic shifts possibly homogenised subtropical Afromontane forest biodiversity, yet these forests continue to harbour unique diversity. For the three songbird species with different natural histories, we investigated the refugial role of subtropical Afromontane and scarp forests and explored specifically how palaeoclimatic events impacted genetic connectivity among forest patches.LocationMaputaland‐Pondoland‐Albany Biodiversity Hotspot, south‐eastern South Africa.TaxonBatis capensis, Phylloscopus ruficapilla and Pogonocichla stellata.MethodsMitochondrial control region sequences and microsatellite data were used to assess genetic diversity and population structure among 406 birds. Demographic change was inferred using Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs), and approximate Bayesian computations (ABCs) were used to identify gene flow trends among putative refugia. Environmental niche models (ENMs) were used to infer past occurrence probabilities.ResultsSpecies BSPs supported regional presence predating the Last Glacial Maximum (21 kya) and indicated post‐glacial population expansions. ABC modelling revealed that present‐day gene flow trends emerged largely during the current interglacial (<12 kya), suggesting that thermal maxima promote regional forest expansion. The north‐eastern source of gene flow in all the three species suggested a post‐glacial influx from refugia further north, while southern scarp forests sustained secondary source populations for B. capensis and P. ruficapilla. High gene flow signatures from south‐western forests in B. capensis and especially P. stellata alluded to hidden source populations in the under‐surveyed southern Afrotemperate forests—the southernmost Afromontane forest bloc. ENMs corroborated both scarp and southern Afrotemperate forests as glacial refugia and demonstrated persistent regional population presence over the past 120 kya.Main ConclusionsThe population genetics and palaeodistribution of the three bird species indicate their regional persistence throughout the late Pleistocene, suggesting that Afromontane and scarp forests of south‐eastern South Africa served as refugia for subtropical African avian forest biota.