African Entrepreneurs Research Articles

Learning from African entrepreneurship—on the psychological function of entrepreneurial preparedness

Psychological preparedness for entrepreneurial actions helps to connect macro-institutional support for entrepreneurs to actions of entrepreneurs. Action knowledge and personal initiative are part of entrepreneurial preparedness, and there are two training concepts that have been developed to increase the number of entrepreneurs among BA and high school students in low- and middle-income countries and to improve the skills and mindset of entrepreneurs. I discuss large-scale randomized controlled interventions in both of these areas with the STEP and personal initiative training. Showing that psychological preparedness for entrepreneurial actions can be enhanced, the question is whether methods shown to work in low-income countries can inform entrepreneurship research in general. Issues that seem to speak against generalizing are often seen in necessity, survivalist, and informal entrepreneurship. These issues are discussed and are deemed of lower importance for generalization of findings. There are also methodological advantages when doing research in low- and middle income countries. Practical and policy implications are also provided.Plain English SummaryEntrepreneurship is about taking action and seizing opportunities. People often think of African entrepreneurs as just trying to survive, but there is more to it. In fact, Africa has likely many more entrepreneurs than the West, and these young business people are keen to learn and grow. We have created training programs for university and high school students to boost the number of entrepreneurs and improve their skills. We have tested these programs with over 6000 students across 11 developing countries, and they have been successful: Training participants started 30% more businesses than the control group. We have also developed a training called personal initiative to help entrepreneurs increase their profits by up to 30%. This has been tested with thousands of participants in ten countries. What makes these training programs special is that they are scientifically tested and proven to be highly effective (the tests were similar to examining the effectiveness of a new medicine). They focus on immediate skill and mindset learning. Psychological training helps entrepreneurs be ready to make the most of government and macro-economic support for businesses. So, there is a lot we can learn from entrepreneurship in Africa.

Entrepreneurs in Africa – the agenda for Business History in Africa: Complexity and continuity

Abstract Africa has been the location of centuries of business activity. African business displays a complex development path through early indigenous kingdoms, colonial control and post–1950 independence. The historiography on these developments is unbalanced in favour of the role performed by enterprises embedded in capitalist metropolitan economies. Complex and dynamic African entrepreneurial activity persisted but adapted to global market changes. Business historians have not systematically explored African agencies in business, the management systems and the organisational evolution of enterprise in Africa. As market liberalisation provided new business opportunities, African businesses emerged to complement and compete with foreign-owned enterprises. As market liberalisation stimulated globalisation, multi-national companies returned to African markets, fostering competition and collaboration. Changes in the political economy of many African states gave rise to more dynamic regulatory contexts and public-private partnerships in different sectors of developing African economies. These trends appear in the Business History of Africa from the perspective of African business, owned by Africans from diverse ethnic origins as proof of the complex trends and processes in African enterprise development. This contribution seeks to refine the focus on business and entrepreneurs in Africa as agents in the continent’s business landscape. The manuscript acknowledges the diversity among African entrepreneurs and the dynamically changing state-business nexus through history. Can one identify a distinct «African» nature of enterprise? This manuscript addresses aspects of conceptual clarity on what constitutes African business in an attempt to map the agenda for Business History in Africa.

A disaggregated view of soft skills: Entrepreneurship education systems of Africa

ABSTRACT Much of the literature on entrepreneurship education describes the teaching concept as a whole, which means that additional work must be done to tease out its individual components. Accordingly, this study focuses on soft skills—a core component of entrepreneurship education that represents entrepreneurial behaviors, attitudes, and attributes. It examines the mechanisms underlying soft skills and entrepreneurial readiness by drawing on a mediated model of entrepreneurship education and 300 observations on aspiring South African entrepreneurs. Regression tests reveal that while soft skills determine the entrepreneurial readiness of these entrepreneurs, their impact on their ability to start, innovate, finance, and grow new ventures is mediated by the entrepreneurial processes that define their entrepreneurial journeys. This has academic, policy, and social implications as it increases the importance of developing contextual insights into the facets of soft skills in an African country to inspire policy reforms that support African entrepreneurship.

A technostress–entrepreneurship nexus in the developing world

Research indicates that entrepreneurs are relying on digital technology for their entrepreneurial endeavours, yet there is little knowledge on how to balance technology usage and wellbeing. Drawing on the concept of technostress and 643 observations of nascent South African entrepreneurs’ interactions with digital technology, we advance knowledge at the technostress–entrepreneurship nexus. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) results reveal how digital self-efficacy moderates their behaviour and inability to balance digital technology usage with wellbeing. These results confirm entrepreneurship passion and perceived behavioural control as predictors of technostress amongst these entrepreneurs. They also suggest that the benefits of digital technology are not a predictor of technostress in African entrepreneurship; thus, extending a conceptual overlay of digital technology, digital self-efficacy, entrepreneurial passion (EP), and behaviour to define the mechanisms underlying a technostress–entrepreneurship nexus. The results show social, policy, and research implications in today’s technology-driven environments characterised by a mixture of midrange to complete digital transformations.

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT POLICY IN FOSTERING ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A USA AND AFRICA REVIEW

This Review explores the crucial role of government policies in fostering entrepreneurship by examining the experiences of the United States (USA) and various African nations. Entrepreneurship is a driving force for economic growth, job creation, and innovation, and government policies play a pivotal role in shaping the entrepreneurial landscape. In the USA, a robust history of entrepreneurial success is attributed in part to supportive government policies. The Review delves into specific policies that have contributed to fostering entrepreneurship, including tax incentives, access to funding through Small Business Administration (SBA) programs, and initiatives promoting innovation and research. The analysis extends to the regulatory environment, emphasizing the importance of flexible regulations that encourage innovation while ensuring consumer protection. Turning attention to Africa, the Review explores the diversity of government approaches across the continent. It considers initiatives implemented by African nations to promote entrepreneurship, such as the establishment of entrepreneurial ecosystems, funding mechanisms for startups, and efforts to streamline regulatory frameworks. The review acknowledges the unique challenges faced by African entrepreneurs, including limited access to capital and infrastructure constraints, and evaluates how government policies aim to address these issues. The comparative analysis highlights lessons that African nations can draw from the USA's successful policies, such as the importance of fostering a culture of innovation, providing targeted financial support, and creating an enabling regulatory environment. Moreover, it emphasizes the need for context-specific policies that consider the unique socio-economic conditions of each African nation. In conclusion, the Review underscores the critical role of government policy in nurturing entrepreneurship, drawing insights from the USA's experience and the varied approaches across African nations. It calls for a nuanced understanding of the diverse African entrepreneurial landscape and encourages policymakers to tailor initiatives that catalyze entrepreneurship, driving economic development across the continent.
 Keywords: Role, Government, Policy, Fostering, Entrepreneurship.

Empowering African entrepreneurs: The crucial role of financial inclusion in mediating the relationship between contextual factors and entrepreneurial willingness

Our study aims to investigate the role of financial inclusion as a mediator in the relationship between contextual factors and entrepreneurial willingness in Africa. While previous research has emphasized the importance of improving institutional and contextual factors to foster entrepreneurship, our study adds a new dimension by highlighting the critical need for tailored financial services that can cater to the unique needs of African entrepreneurs. In light of this, we have employed a robust and comprehensive methodology, leveraging micro-level data that covers 44,129 African adults and using Instrumental Variable Probit estimation. This approach allows us to offer valuable insights into the factors driving entrepreneurship in Africa. Our results suggest financial inclusion as a crucial determinant in the relationship between contextual factors and entrepreneurship in Africa, with the usage dimension being more important than the access dimension. Our findings reveal that the impact of contextual factors on entrepreneurship in Africa is strongly influenced by financial inclusion. By acting as a mediator, financial inclusion plays a pivotal role in shaping entrepreneurial willingness. Moreover, policymakers in Africa should focus on improving the business environment, addressing key contextual determinants of entrepreneurship where most African countries face a significant deficit compared to the world's top-ranking economies. These determinants include institutional quality, infrastructure, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) adoption, health, skills, product market, labor market, and innovation capability. Our study advances the field of research in two key ways. First, it provides empirically grounded evidence on both individual and contextual factors that can stimulate entrepreneurship in Africa. Given the representativeness of our sample, the policy implications of our study are valuable, offering useful insights for international institutions and policymakers working to promote entrepreneurship in Africa. Second, in contrast to previous studies on financial inclusion that use macroeconomic data to quantify the multidimensionality of financial inclusion, our study is unique in that it constructs a financial inclusion index based on microeconomic data to quantify the financial inclusion level of each individual in our sample.

Using entrepreneurial competencies and action to profile entrepreneurs: a CHAID analysis approach

PurposeEntrepreneurial trait and behaviour approaches are used to identify differing entrepreneurial profiles. Specifically, this study aims to determine which entrepreneurial competencies (ECs) can predict entrepreneurial action (EA) for distinct profiles, such as male versus female, start-up versus established and for entrepreneurs within different age groups and educational levels.Design/methodology/approachThe research was conducted using a survey method on a large sample of 1,150 South African entrepreneurs. Chi-squared automatic interaction detection (CHAID) algorithms were used to build decision trees to illustrate distinct entrepreneurial profiles.FindingsEach profile has a different set of ECs that predict EA, with a growth mindset being the most significant predictor of action. Therefore, this study confirms that a “one-size-fits-all” approach cannot be applied when profiling entrepreneurs.Research limitations/implicationsFrom a pedagogical standpoint, different combinations of these ECs for each profile provide priority information for identification of appropriate candidates (e.g. the highest potential for success) and training initiatives, effective pedagogies and programme design (e.g. which individual ECs should be trained and how should they be trained).Originality/valuePrevious work has mostly focused on demographic variables and included a single sample to profile entrepreneurs. This study maintains much wider applicability in terms of examining profiles in a systematic way. The large sample size supports quantitative analysis of the comparisons between different entrepreneurial profiles using unconventional analyses. Furthermore, as far as can be determined, this represents the first CHAID conducted in a developing country context, especially South Africa, focusing on individual ECs predicting EA.

Opportunities for local electric vehicle manufacturing in Africa

In order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the United Nations on Clean Energy, Sustainable Industrialization and Climate Change, there is an urgent call on Africa to decarbonize transportation. Achieving these goals requires that Africa grows its current, largely, non-existent EV fleet to a reasonable level in the near future, to counter harmful emissions from fossil fuel vehicles. This paper discusses the opportunities available to African entrepreneurs on investing in electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing. It also discusses the factors militating against the establishment of a viable automotive sector. To exploit the opportunities offered despite the limitations, the paper advocates a paradigm shift from the conventional vehicle assembly of foreign vehicles to one in which African original designs are made in low-cost, low-volume vehicle manufacturing plants consisting of general-purpose workshop equipment and intensive labour such that the whole value chain for vehicle manufacturing is developed.

Resourcing actions that influenced business model adaptation during the COVID-19 crisis

Purpose: Entrepreneurs constantly face crises and resource scarcity threatening their firms’ survival. However, limited studies analyse how entrepreneurs influence business model adaptation to survive a crisis. The study uses the bricolage theory to explore how entrepreneurs’ resourcing actions influenced business model adaptation during the COVID-19 crisis in a resource-constrained environment.Design/methodology/approach: This narrative qualitative study was conducted on 12 Indian entrepreneurs in the KwaZulu-Natal province and validated by additional interviews with three Black African entrepreneurs in Gauteng province, South Africa. The themes were developed using narrative thematic analysis.Findings/results: The study reveals the resourcing actions influencing Indian entrepreneurs’ business model adaptation. These include sense-making of resource constraints, leveraging ‘self-reliant’ entrepreneurial bricolage behaviours and maximising ‘joint’ stakeholder resources. The study shows how some dimensions of effectuation influence the resourcing actions, suggesting that bricolage is not mutually exclusive from effectuation during business model adaptation because of the crisis.Practical implications: The study offers entrepreneurs practical insights on resourcing actions for business model adaptation during a crisis. The findings will help entrepreneurship development groups establish suitable interventions for entrepreneurs, assisting in preparing and managing crises.Originality/value: The study shows how the micro or individual and/or entrepreneur interacts with the macro business levels and stakeholders during business model adaptation. The study shows that entrepreneurs’ actions are significant antecedents to business model adaptation.

Assessing impact of a Mandela Washington Fellowship Institute for African entrepreneurs

The development of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been slow compared to the rest of the world, and a lack of investment in human capital development emerges as a prevalent reason. Oklahoma State University provided a six-week-long entrepreneurship education program (EEP) for participants from SSA; many had agricultural or food businesses. Approaches to entrepreneurship education is a well-debated topic in the literature, including how best to evaluate such. We conducted a study in which 12 entrepreneurs were interviewed about nine months after the program’s end. Transcripts were analyzed using Epoche, horizontalization, phenomenological reduction, and imaginative variation. Themes, sub-themes, and an essence emerged. The themes were improvements, changes, and challenges to their business models; self-improvement and empowerment; and social change. Building the capacity of socially responsible entrepreneurs for a new Africa was the phenomenon’s essence. Future research should assess the impact of business knowledge attainment on the long-term success of entrepreneurs and identify learning experiences motivating them to practice social entrepreneurship. EEPs should stress rigor and an ethos of accomplishment, conduct site visits, and provide opportunities for community service. Interventions to negate the marginalization frequently experienced by women entrepreneurs in developing contexts are also discussed.

The role of growth aspirations in SMME financing decisions

The literature suggests that growth aspirations positively influence SMME access to finance. However, a knowledge gap remained concerning the role of growth aspirations in SMME financing decisions. This study explored the role of entrepreneurs’ growth aspirations in their decision to apply for external finance. In addition, the study investigated the effect of intention to apply on entrepreneurs taking action to apply; and the effect of growth aspirations on entrepreneurs’ intentions and actions. We conducted in-depth interviews with 14 South African entrepreneurs. In parallel, an online survey collected quantitative data from 185 South African entrepreneurs conveniently sampled on LinkedIn, Facebook and WhatsApp. Interview findings suggest that growth aspirations motivate entrepreneurs to seek external finance. The evidence indicates that intention to apply for external finance has a positive effect on entrepreneurs taking action to apply. However, we found no empirical support for growth aspirations positively affecting intention to apply or entrepreneurs taking action to apply. We propose that future research investigates a mediating effect wherein perceived desirability mediates the effect of growth aspirations on entrepreneurs’ intention to apply for external finance. An improved understanding of the role of growth aspirations in SMME financing decisions can support policymakers and finance providers in guiding entrepreneurs who need external finance to grow their businesses.

Network-diversification and trust-building strategies of transnational migrant entrepreneurs: evidence from African migrant entrepreneurs in South China

ABSTRACT This article explores how African entrepreneurs in Guangzhou manage to survive in an environment that is characterized by harsh competition and major institutional restrictions. Combining literature on social networks theory with the mixed embeddedness approach, this paper presents an analysis of African entrepreneurial trajectories as a transnational and locally embedded process through exploring networking and trust-building strategies that African entrepreneurs employ to (re)position themselves in the Sino-African value chain. Based on ethnographic research on African entrepreneurs in Guangzhou, it shows that many African entrepreneurs are changing positions in the value chain by moving closer to Chinese production. Moving closer to the production side necessitates entrepreneurs to develop stronger local embeddedness whereas at the same time they need to maintain their transnational ties. Entrepreneurs in earlier phases rely on a ties with other Africans in Guangzhou, while in later phases they are embedded in a more diversified network.

Entrepreneurial learning outcomes in the transition from hybrid to full-time entrepreneurship

Purpose: Hybrid entrepreneurship is a career transition path and a learning ground for entrepreneurs moving towards full-time entrepreneurship. Although previous studies have highlighted the benefits of a learning process, the learning during the hybrid phase is mainly underexplored. This study aimed to explore the learning outcomes during the transition from hybrid to full-time entrepreneurship in a South African context.Design/methodology/approach: This narrative qualitative study collected data from a purposive sample of 15 South African entrepreneurs who transitioned from hybrid to full-time entrepreneurship.Findings/results: There are three primary learning outcomes during the transition process. Firstly, the meaning-making outcomes in the early transition stage rely on spiritual guidance in the decision-making process and refining the entrepreneurs’ purpose. Secondly, the applied entrepreneurial learning outcomes in the mid-transition stage focus on the entrepreneurial competencies and operating as a jack of all trades to manage the business. Lastly, the constructive entrepreneurial leadership outcomes in the late transition stage are about the entrepreneurs leading themselves, others and the organisation. The findings show that the entrepreneurs’ narratives of the learning outcomes align with the transition stages.Practical implications: This study contributes to the entrepreneurial practice by developing a framework on learning outcomes during the transition process. Entrepreneurs in the transition process should build some of the identified competencies.Originality/value: The study addresses an overlooked research area on learning experienced during the transition from hybrid to full-time entrepreneurship. It also suggests propositions that contribute to the growing body of research on hybrid entrepreneurship.

Revisiting Entrepreneurship Development Policy Framework for Africa

Most development economists agree that entrepreneurship provides a greater promise for lowering the levels of youth unemployment in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). It can also strengthen the capacity of young people to care for themselves and their families (Kuada, 2015a). For this reason, entrepreneurial attitude development among the youth has featured prominently on the policy agenda of many African countries. Since past research has used innovation and creativity as useful constructs by which entrepreneurs can be identified, these two defining characteristics have guided most entrepreneurship development policies. Building on them, the entrepreneurship literature has identified two complementary sets of policy initiatives. The first group of policies encourage African higher educational institutions (AHEIs) to design entrepreneurship education (EE) programmes that serve to bridge entrepreneurial skill gaps among the youth (Sorensen & Kuada, 2022). The second, encourages general entrepreneurial learning within informal structures and relational networks. The results of these initiatives have been limited and policymakers have become keenly aware that creating an entrepreneurial culture in a country is a complex undertaking and the predictive validity of any single approach is nearly impossible to establish (Rae, 2017). For example, past empirical research has shown that factors other than “school attainment” contribute to an individual’s preparedness to start a business, and AHEIs may lack the capabilities to provide all the required preparations (Sorensen & Kuada, 2022). Similarly, African entrepreneurs’ learning process is often messy, as they acquire skills and competencies from widely diverse sources. Consequently, no single policy can adequately address their learning needs. For these reasons, the search for the most suitable modalities for facilitating youth-based entrepreneurship in Africa remains a vigorously debated topic within SSA policy and academic circles.

Factors Leading to South African Female Entrepreneurs’ Endurance to Remain in Business

ABSTRACT Entrepreneurship has become a primary driver of economic growth, innovation, and development. This is specifically relevant for developing countries where poverty and high unemployment rates are prevalent. This study’s primary objective focuses on understanding and predicting factors that motivate female entrepreneurs to remain in and ultimately grow their businesses. A quantitative research approach was utilized following a descriptive, single-sample cross-sectional design. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 510 South African female entrepreneurs. The data were analyzed using various statistical methods such as descriptive, correlation, and canonical correlation analyses. The core findings of this study suggest that South African female entrepreneurs’ have fervent intentions not only to remain active entrepreneurs but to pursue business growth with a tenacious attitude toward business success, despite operating in a challenging environment. By ascertaining the various factors contributing to most female entrepreneurs’ choice to remain in business, it may provide an impetus to develop appropriate policies to encourage female empowerment, job creation, and business development. These policies could provide significant assistance that allows females to remain in business and increase their growth potential, leading to more significant economic growth.

Imaginaries of platform entrepreneurship in the creative industries: techno-optimism and subversion in Ghanaian filmmaking

ABSTRACT This article examines imaginaries of platform entrepreneurship in film industries in Ghana. To understand how these imaginaries are spatially shaped and locally defined, we carried out in-depth qualitative research with fifty filmmakers in four regions of Ghana. Digital and platform technologies have long been optimistically celebrated as a way for marginalized creative entrepreneurs, particularly in Africa, to break into global markets and reach unprecedented levels of business success. However, far from being universally adopted by African creative entrepreneurs, these global techno-optimistic imaginaries are continually reworked, contested and subverted in practice. In this article, we show how Ghanaian filmmakers mobilized, deployed and resisted imaginaries of platform entrepreneurship in their efforts to make sense of their situated entrepreneurial practices and to imagine the future of their creative businesses. We found that rather than naïvely adhering to techno-optimist imaginaries, through their practices, Ghanaian filmmaking entrepreneurs challenged the power geometry of the current platform ecosystem dominated by major Silicon Valley players. We contribute empirically rich data on how filmmaking entrepreneurs use and imagine platform technologies, as is necessary when African digital entrepreneurs are surrounded by hype but inadequate data. We also contribute to the literature about how individual platforms and platform types have unique affordances and how these affordances are shaped by the location and socio-economic position of the entrepreneur.

The Impacts of Covid-19 on Youth Entrepreneurship in South Africa

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted youth entrepreneurship in countries around the world. Developing countries have been negatively impacted the most due to the challenges confronting low-income countries. The youth in developing countries experience many challenges especially in start-ups and innovative businesses owing to lack of education, skills, funding, infrastructure, and other mechanisms of support.. These challenges therefore pose a significant threat on the youth in these countries in sustaining their new ventures and businesses during and after the crisis. This study focuses on a South African perspective and looks at the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth entrepreneurship in developing countries in comparison to developed countries. Nothwithstanding these challenges however, there are many opportunities that can be exploited in this crisis through innovative projects. This study was critical due to inadequate research been conducted on the impacts of the pandemic on entrepreneurship and youth entrepreneurship. A library and desk-based research was undertaken due to COVID-19 restrictions and time constraints. An inclusive literature review was done and thereafter findings reflected that the challenges that youth in African countries experience are due to the poor development of youth. Shutdowns of businesses and the protection of the elderly by staying home influenced their businesses. This impacted the youth negatively during the lockdown, but due to their innovative mind-sets, many African youth entrepreneurs utilized the lockdown as an opportunity to repurpose their businesses or embark on new ventures. Recommendations included creation of entrepreneurship hubs, availability of support initiatives, funding opportunities and creation of youth-friendly policies.

Digital innovations for transitioning to circular plastic value chains in Africa

ABSTRACT The paper analyzes the current state of plastic value chains in Africa and the potential of digital innovations adopted by African entrepreneurs to contributing to a circular plastic economy. We provide an overview of plastic waste trade to African countries and an assessment of existing digital solutions that can support the transition to a circular plastic economy. The findings show that various digital innovations are being applied by entrepreneurs including web-based solutions, mobile apps and 3D printing. The case studies also show that multinational companies, especially consumer facing brands, are major players in the national plastic value chains in African countries, acting as seed funders for start-ups as well as buyers of recycled plastics. Current initiatives that are underway are positive signs that changes are in progress to address the environmental and social impacts of plastics value chains in Africa. However, to achieve a transition to sustainable circular value chains, changes at policy level will be required to enable scaling-up of local start-up businesses, address regulatory barriers to digital solutions, create markets for recycled plastic materials and implement extended producer responsibility regulations.

Africa Going Global: The Reverse Innovation Perspective

Reverse innovations from developing countries have changed the course of innovation globally in recent times from the status quo. Innovations developed to meet the needs of emerging markets are also routed to the developed countries. Although, Africa is lagging behind, the developing countries in Asia are taking advantage of their reverse innovations to internationalize globally. This study has adopted the traditional approach of literature review to develop an argument for and also to emphasize the importance of reverse innovation for Africa globalization in order to build and or bridge the gap on existing knowledge in the area of innovation management. Thirty-one quality articles with the following terms and concepts from extant literature such as; innovation, reverse innovation, frugal innovation, good enough innovation, trickle-up innovation, bottom of pyramid (BOP) innovation, low-cost innovation products, value innovation, jugaad innovation, and cost innovation products were identified and used for the literature review. This approach of the traditional literature review is adequate based on the scope of this research work. In this study, the pathway for African countries to achieve internationalization through reverse innovations are elaborated thus; availability of skilled human capital, the partnership of local firms with MNCs, integration, conforming with regulations and standards, country of origin effect redress, development of SMART reverse innovation products, top-down government support, constitution of African country-specific innovation ecosystem, less imitation among African entrepreneurs, and proper succession plan by firms. However, very few African context-specific drivers of reverse innovations such as less imitation among African entrepreneurs, proper succession plans by firms, and country of origin effect redress have been identified among the pathway factors to internationalization listed in this study. It is also found that the major reverse innovations from developing countries are from Asia. Hence, the focus on Africa in this study. Managers of firms and generally, entrepreneurs should recognize their importance as agents that can foster reverse innovations in Africa. Agents that make up the innovation ecosystem should uphold innovation at all levels and at different capacities. For Africa to make headway in the international market, the local firms and entrepreneurs should engage in the production of reverse innovation products.

Creating change through social entrepreneurship: the case of girls’ school dropouts in Uganda

Subject area This case focusses on social innovation and social entrepreneurship in Africa, specifically looking at behavioural characteristics of social entrepreneurs, their motivations to create social value and the application of personal initiative theory. The case discusses the self-starting proactiveness and innovation traits of the social entrepreneur. The social business model canvas will be used to analyse the social enterprise’s business model. Study level/applicability Students of social entrepreneurship, development studies, sustainable livelihoods and asset-based development. It is useful for customised or short programmes on social entrepreneurship or for students with a background in business wanting to understand social enterprise as a vehicle for social and economic change. As such, this case is written for Business Management and Entrepreneurship undergraduates or students of elective courses in social entrepreneurship (“understanding” and “remembering” learning activities under Bloom’s taxonomy). When personal initiative theory is used, the case provides an initial understanding of social entrepreneurship in a less developed context for post-graduate students and may be used for higher-order learning activities (“analysing” and “applying”). Case overview The case tells the story of Dr Engr Moses Musaazi, who is a Social Entrepreneur and Managing Director of Technology for Tomorrow (T4T). Troubled with the persistent social problems in his country. Musaazi, through T4T, strived for social innovations to reduce school dropouts of Ugandan girls. While exploring Moses’ journey for solving persistent social problems through social innovations, students will be able to understand, remember, analyse and apply Dees’ (2001) social entrepreneurial behaviours and Santos’ (2012) theory of social entrepreneurship. The case discusses what motivates African social entrepreneurs to start a social venture (Ghalwash, Tolba, & Ismail, 2017). Students will apply personal initiative theory to identify the social entrepreneurial behaviours displayed in the creation of social ventures. To exemplify and analyse the different components of social ventures’ business model, the social business model canvas by Sparviero (2019) will be introduced. Expected learning outcomes The teaching objectives are Objective 1. Students are able to remember, understand, identify and apply the social entrepreneurial behaviours as defined by Dees (2001) and the elements of Santos’ (2012) theory of social entrepreneurship to Dr Moses Musaazi’s case as a social entrepreneur. Objective 2. Students remember, understand and identify what motivates social entrepreneurs in less developed economies to create social value (Ghalwash et al., 2017). Objective 3. Early-stage postgraduate students are able to apply and analyse (also evaluate and create for higher-level post-graduates) personal initiative theory to explain the emergence of social entrepreneurial behaviour and especially how innovation, self-starting and proactiveness may lead to social entrepreneurial venture start-up (Frese, Kring, Soose, & Zempel, 1996). Objective 4. Students use the social business model canvas (Sparviero, 2019) as a tool to understand, analyse and improve a social-enterprise business model. Supplementary materials Supplementary learning materials are provided in the Teaching Note (Table 1). Table1, which includes videos and their description. Also, a link to Uganda’s sustainable development index is provided (the focus is sustainable development goals [SDGs] 3: Good health and well-being, SDG 4: Quality Education, SDG 5: Gender equality, SDG 10: Reduced inequalities). Subject code CSS 3: Entrepreneurship.