Africanized Honey Bees Research Articles

Bactericide and antimicrobial effects of ethanolic extracts of propolis and geopropolis of stingless bees natives from the state of Paraná in multi-resistant microorganisms / Efeitos bactericidas e antimicrobianos de extratos alcoólicos de própolis e geoprópolis de abelhas sem ferrão, nativas do estado do Paraná, em microorganismos multi-resistentes

The value of ecosystem concerning for the maintenance of riparian forests for the protection of water bodies can be essential to the preservation of natural resources, fauna and flora, and all of them inter-connected. Native stingless bees are fundamental pollinating agents for food production, besides the production of propolis and geopropolis, being each of these products, with local characteristics, depending on the vegetation available. The preservation of riparian forests enhances the insertion of meliponaries in communities bordering superficial water bodies and emphasizes the socio-environmental importance because this activity can be an extra source of income for small rural producers. In this work, the antimicrobial and antibacterial potential of propolis from stingless bees, native from the State of Paraná - Brazil, was examined, whose products can be extremely important considering its socio-economic and environmental view. Ethanolic extracts of propolis and geopropolis of native bees were tested according the antimicrobial and bactericidal capacity. The test was conducted with ethanolic extract of Africanized bees, in order to use it as control. The ethanolic extract of propolis and geopropolis of tested species showed to be effective as bactericide for the strains of bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram-positive) and Klebsiella planticola, Escherichia coli, Raoutella planticola (gram-negative). In addition, it was observed that fungi can be inertized in honey by reducing the moisture content and the chemical defense barrier due to the substances present in the propolis and geopropolis against microorganisms. Inside the hives bees use propolis/geopropolis as sanitizer, to promote the fixation of microorganisms. In addition to pollination, the hives have an important function as controlling pests and pathogens.

Functional response of the hypopharyngeal glands to a social parasitism challenge in Southern African honey bee subspecies.

Hypopharyngeal gland (HPG) development in honey bee workers is primarily age-dependent and changes according to the tasks performed in the colony. HPG activity also depends on colony requirements and is flexible in relation to the need for feeding brood. Very little is known about HPG development in the honey bee subspecies found in Southern Africa. We examined HPG development in Apis mellifera scutellata and A. m. capensis, including A. m. scutellata colonies infested with an invasive parasitic clonal lineage of A. m. capensis known to manipulate food provisioning to the parasitic larvae by their A.m. scutellata hosts, under natural in-hive conditions in bees aged 0 to 14days using light microscopy. We found marked differences in acini size (berry-like clusters of secretory cells) and the age at which maximum HPG development occurred between the subspecies and in the presence of the parasite. In A. m. scutellata workers, acini reached maximum size at 6days. The acini of A. m. capensis workers were larger (up to double) than those of A. m. scutellata and reached maximum size at 8days, while the HPG acini in A. m. scutellata workers infested with A. m. capensis clones reached development sizes similar to those of A. m. capensis at day 10 and were 1.5 times larger than those of uninfested A. m. scutellata. This provides foundational insights into a functional response affecting the development of the HPG most likely associated with brood pheromone composition and how this is altered in the presence of a social parasite.

Effects of Simulated Tropical Heatwaves During Development on Morphological and Reproductive Traits of Africanized Honey Bee (Apis Mellifera L.) Drones and Queens

Effects of Simulated Tropical Heatwaves During Development on Morphological and Reproductive Traits of Africanized Honey Bee (Apis Mellifera L.) Drones and Queens

Reproductive Success of an Endangered Plant after Invasive Bees Supplant Native Pollinator Services

Arctomecon humilis (dwarf bear poppy) is an endangered gypsophile restricted to the St. George area in southern Utah, USA. Extirpation of the rare oligolectic bee Perdita meconis and decline of other native pollinators within the last 20 years has been largely attributed to the advent of invasive Africanized honeybees (AHBs), which have become the predominant pollinator for A. humilis. A three-year study was carried out to determine if reliance on AHBs had a negative effect on reproductive output. In the first year, pollen addition experiments were carried out in a small, isolated population to determine if pollinator scarcity or genetic factors affected reproductive output. In the subsequent two years, reproductive output studies were conducted across four populations. In all years, fruit set across study sites was exceptionally high. There was no consistent effect from flower number or interplant distance, which have historically been shown to have a significant impact on reproductive output prior to AHB arrival. The consequences and sustainability of this relatively young relationship between A. humilis and the AHB remain unclear. However, high reproductive success shows that the AHB is currently capable of adequately fulfilling pollinator services for A. humilis.

Attack of the dark clones the genetics of reproductive and color traits of South African honey bees (Apis mellifera spp.).

The traits of two subspecies of western honey bees, Apis mellifera scutellata and A.m. capensis, endemic to the Republic of South Africa (RSA), are of biological and commercial relevance. Nevertheless, the genetic basis of important phenotypes found in these subspecies remains poorly understood. We performed a genome wide association study on three traits of biological relevance in 234 A.m. capensis, 73 A.m. scutellata and 158 hybrid individuals. Thirteen markers were significantly associated to at least one trait (P ≤ 4.28 × 10-6): one for ovariole number, four for scutellar plate and eight for tergite color. We discovered two possible causative variants associated to the respective phenotypes: a deletion in GB46429 or Ebony (NC_007070.3:g.14101325G>del) (R69Efs*85) and a nonsense on GB54634 (NC_007076.3:g.4492792A>G;p.Tyr128*) causing a premature stop, substantially shortening the predicted protein. The mutant genotypes are significantly associated to phenotypes in A.m. capensis. Loss-of-function of Ebony can cause accumulation of circulating dopamine, and increased dopamine levels correlate to ovary development in queenless workers and pheromone production. Allelic association (P = 1.824 x 10-5) of NC_007076.3:g.4492792A>G;p.Tyr128* to ovariole number warrants further investigation into function and expression of the GB54634 gene. Our results highlight genetic components of relevant production/conservation behavioral phenotypes in honey bees.

African endemic stingless bees as an efficient alternative pollinator to honey bees in greenhouse cucumber (Cucumis sativus L)

The current honey bee decline necessitates the use of alternative native pollinators to ensure global food security. Here, we compared the pollination behaviour and efficiency of the African honey bee (Apis mellifera) and six African endemic Meliponini (Meliponula bocandei, Dactylurina schmidti, Meliponula lendliana, Hypotrigona gribodoi, Meliponula ferruginea and Meliponula togoensis) in a greenhouse with the non-parthenocarpic cucumber variety Super Marketer. Honey bees and D. schmidti started foraging on introduction in the greenhouse, while M. lendliana and M. togoensis showed the longest delay. In most species, foragers collected nectar and pollen, excepting M. bocandei that specialized in nectar collection, and H. gribodoi and M. togoensis, specialized in pollen collection. African honey bees visited flowers the shortest, while H. gribodoi and D. schmidti had a 2-fold probing time, on average. Most stingless bees species had a lower hive activity with fewer foragers encountered per hour than for honey bees, except D. schmidti. M. bocandei, M. ferruginea, A. mellifera scutellata and H. gribodoi, yielded a seed germination percentage of around 90%. M. lendliana, M. togoensis and D. schmidti yielded a much lower seed germination percentage around 30%, which indicates that the quality of pollination was remarkably lower by using these three species. The highest sugar content was recorded in fruits from flowers pollinated by M. bocandei, African honey bees, D. schimdti or M. togoensis with the same solid content as the gold standard method, i.e., hand cross-pollination. We found that M. bocandei was the most efficient cucumber pollinator of all species tested: because pollination by this species yielded the largest and heaviest fruits and the highest seed numbers.

No effect of abscisic and p-coumaric acids as food supplements and stimulants of the immunological system of Africanized hybrids of Apis mellifera

Bee colonies determined as Apis mellifera scutellata haplotype A1 were administered with a food supplement of sugar syrup mixed with p-coumaric acid (CUM), to test its supposed antioxidant effects; abscisic acid (ABA), to test whether it promotes innate immunity in bees, the combination of both (ABACUM), and syrup as a control. During three months, the number of cells with brood, honey and pollen reserves, as well as the concentration of hemocytes in worker bees were counted. Besides, Varroa destructor and Nosema ceranae were monitored. At the concentrations used, ABA and CUM had no effect on oviposition; however, there was a significant increase in the number of cells with brood or with honey and pollen reserves between the beginning and the end of the study. Regarding the monitoring of V. destructor, there were no significant differences between treatments; this mite did not cause obvious damage, seemingly because the experimental (Africanized) bees are considered tolerant to its infestation. There were no significant differences between treatments in infection by N. ceranae; however, there was a significant decrease in intensity, prevalence, and abundance of spores between the beginning and the end of the study, which was associated with the fact that the bees collected nectar and this resulted in the development of colonies. The number of hemocytes did not show a significant difference between treatments, but there was a significant increase between the first and the last evaluation. Neither ABA, CUM or ABACUM produced the predicted effects on the experimental bees.

Perdas de colônias de abelhas no Brasil em 2018-2019

A research was conducted to assess honey bee colony losses in Brazil, including their likely causes. Beekeepers responded to two complete annual questionnaires (n=268 in 2018 and n=254 in 2019). There was a total of 175,003 hives of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), (µ=335 hives per beekeeper, min=9 and Max=3,600), of which 27.2% were lost. A Generalized Linear Model (GLM) for total loss (TL) and a Wald method for average loss (AL) were used to estimate 95% confidence intervals (CI) for loss rates based on year: 2018, TL=30.5%, CI (28.5-32.4), AL=39.5, CI (37.0-41.9); and 2019, TL=23.8%, CI (22.5-25.2), AL=31.3%, CI (29.5-33.1). Pesticides were speculated to be the leading cause of colony losses (47.3%), followed by climate (drought, flood, rain: 11.6%), malnutrition (lack of flowering, lack of energy and/or protein source, wrong nutrition: 9.7%), absconding (10.2%), mismanagement (wrong migratory activity, migration to mangrove, beekeeper’s personal problems: 7.9%), predators (3.9%), queen problems (2.8%), and varroa (1.6%). Other parasites, theft, toxic pollen (Brazilian sacbrood) and bushfires accounted for the remaining 5% of losses. Due to tropical temperatures, there is no substantial winter loss. In contrast, the highest incidence of losses occurred from September to January, coinciding with the intense agricultural activity. In summary, according to participants, there were significantly higher losses in 2018 compared to 2019, with pesticides alleged to be the main cause of honey bee colony losses in Brazil. However, beekeepers usually multiply colonies during the following season, sustaining pollination and honey production, thereby supporting agricultural activity.

Susceptibility of the Western Honey Bee Apis mellifera and the African Stingless Bee Meliponula ferruginea (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to the Entomopathogenic Fungi Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana.

This study assessed the nontarget effect of entomopathogenic fungi on the Western honey bee Apis mellifera L. and the African stingless bee Meliponula ferruginea Cockrell (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Pathogenicity of five Metarhizium anisopliae (ICIPE 7, ICIPE 20, ICIPE 62, ICIPE 69, and ICIPE 78) (Metschnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) and one of Beauveria bassiana (ICIPE 284) (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordicipitaceae) isolates were evaluated on bees at 108 conidia/ml. Conidial acquisition was evaluated immediately after exposure. Apis mellifera acquired more conidia (2.8 × 104–1.3 × 105 conidia per bee) compared to M. ferruginea (1.1 × 104–2.3 × 104 conidia per bee). In the bioassay with A. mellifera, ICIPE 7, ICIPE 20, and ICIPE 69 moderately reduced the survival by 16.9, 17.4, 15.3%, with lethal times LT10 = 7.4, 7.6, 8.1 d and LT25 = 8.7, 10.0, 9.9 d, respectively. The three isolates caused A. mellifera mycosis of 11.6–18.5%. None of the isolates had a significant effect on M. ferruginea. The tested isolates are nontoxic to bees according to the International Organization of Biological Control (IOBC) classification. However, the effect of ICIPE 7, ICIPE 20, and ICIPE 69 merits further studies on bee colonies, especially those of A. mellifera, under field conditions.

High-resolution (mtDNA) melting analysis for simple and efficient characterization of Africanized honey bee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera:Apidae).

Analysis of the mtDNA variation in Apis mellifera L. has allowed distinguishing subspecies and evolutionary lineages by means of different molecular methods; from RFLP, to PCR-RFLP and direct sequencing. Likewise, geometric morphometrics (GM) has been used to distinguish Africanized honey bees with a high degree of consistency with studies using molecular information. High-resolution fusion analysis (HRM) allows one to quickly identify sequence polymorphisms by comparing DNA melting curves in short amplicons generated by real-time PCR (qPCR). The objective of this work was to implement the HRM technique in the diagnosis of Africanization of colonies of A. mellifera from Argentina, using GM as a validation method. DNA was extracted from 60A. mellifera colonies for mitotype identification. Samples were initially analyzed by HRM, through qPCRs of two regions (485bp/385bp) of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (cytb). This technique was then optimizing to amplify a smaller PCR product (207bp) for the HRM diagnosis for the Africanization of colonies. Of the 60 colony samples analyzed, 41 were classified as colonies of European origin whereas 19 revealed African origin. All the samples classified by HRM were correctly validated by GM, demonstrating that this technique could be implemented for a rapid identification of African mitotypes in Apis mellifera samples.

Effect of yeast and essential oil-enriched diets on critical determinants of health and immune function in Africanized Apis mellifera.

Nutrition is vital for health and immune function in honey bees (Apis mellifera). The effect of diets enriched with bee-associated yeasts and essential oils of Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens) was tested on survival, food intake, accumulated fat body tissue, and gene expression of vitellogenin (Vg), prophenoloxidase (proPO) and glucose oxidase (GOx) in newly emerged worker bees. The enriched diets were provided to bees under the premise that supplementation with yeasts or essential oils can enhance health variables and the expression of genes related to immune function in worker bees. Based on a standard pollen substitute, used as a control diet, enriched diets were formulated, five with added bee-associated yeasts (Starmerella bombicola, Starmerella etchellsii, Starmerella bombicola 2, Zygosaccharomyces mellis, and the brewers’ yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and three with added essential oils from L. graveolens (carvacrol, thymol, and sesquiterpenes). Groups of bees were fed one of the diets for 9 or 12 days. Survival probability was similar in the yeast and essential oils treatments in relation to the control, but median survival was lower in the carvacrol and sesquiterpenes treatments. Food intake was higher in all the yeast treatments than in the control. Fat body percentage in individual bees was slightly lower in all treatments than in the control, with significant decreases in the thymol and carvacrol treatments. Expression of the genes Vg, proPO, and GOx was minimally affected by the yeast treatments but was adversely affected by the carvacrol and thymol treatments.

Tetracycline Exposure Alters Key Gut Microbiota in Africanized Honey Bees (Apis mellifera scutellata x spp.)

Honey bees play a critical role in ecosystem health, biodiversity maintenance, and crop yield. Antimicrobials, such as tetracyclines, are used widely in agriculture, medicine, and in bee keeping, and bees can be directly or indirectly exposed to tetracycline residues in the environment. In European honey bees, tetracycline exposure has been linked with shifts in the gut microbiota that negatively impact bee health. However, the effects of antimicrobials on Africanized honey bee gut microbiota have not been examined. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of tetracycline exposure on the gut microbial community of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellatax spp.), which are important pollinators in South, Central, and North America. Bees (n= 1,000) were collected from hives in Areia-PB, Northeastern Brazil, placed into plastic chambers and kept under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. The control group (CON) was fed daily with syrup (10 g) consisting of a 1:1 solution of demerara sugar and water, plus a solid protein diet (10 g) composed of 60% soy extract and 40% sugar syrup. The tetracycline group (TET) was fed identically but with the addition of tetracycline hydrochloride (450 μg/g) to the sugar syrup. Bees were sampled from each group before (day 0), and after tetracycline exposure (days 3, 6, and 9). Abdominal contents dissected out of each bee underwent DNA extraction and 16S rRNA sequencing (V3-V4) on an Illumina MiSeq. Sequences were filtered and processed through QIIME2 and DADA2. Microbial community composition and diversity and differentially abundant taxa were evaluated by treatment and time. Bee gut microbial composition (Jaccard) and diversity (Shannon) differed significantly and increasingly over time and between CON and TET groups. Tetracycline exposure was associated with decreased relative abundances ofBombellaandFructobacillus, along with decreases in key core microbiota such asSnodgrassella,Gilliamella, Rhizobiaceae, andApibacter.These microbes are critical for nutrient metabolism and pathogen defense, and it is possible that decreased abundances of these microbes could negatively affect bee health. Considering the global ecological and economic importance of honey bees as pollinators, it is critical to understand the effects of agrochemicals including antimicrobials on honey bees.

Defensive Behavior and Morphometric Variation in Apis mellifera Colonies From Two Different Agro-Ecological Zones of North-Western Argentina

European lineages of Apis mellifera were first introduced into America for beekeeping purposes. A subsequent introduction and accidental release of A. m. scutellata resulted in hybridization events that gave rise to Africanized populations that rapidly spread throughout the continent. In Argentina, Africanized honey bees (AHBs) have been mostly detected in northern regions of the territory, and represent a valuable genetic resource for the selection of stocks with advantageous characteristics for beekeeping. The objective of the present study was to profile honey bee colonies of wild origin with potential beneficial traits for apiculture using morphological, molecular and behavioral traits. Honey bee colonies chosen for evaluation were located in two different agro-ecological regions in north-western Argentina (Tucumán province): The Chaco Depressed Plain (Leales apiary) and the Piedmont (Famaillá apiary). Each apiary was surveyed three times during the 2017–2018 season (mid-season, wintertime, and early spring) for: brood population, phoretic Varroa level and defensive behavior (run, fly, sting, and hang). At the midpoint of the beekeeping season colonies were also characterized by morphometry (45 variables) and mitochondrial haplotypes (COI–COII intergenic region). Apiaries studied showed similar patterns throughout the beekeeping season, for most of the characteristics monitored. However, significant variation in defensive behavior parameters was found between apiaries at the different times of evaluation. Twelve of 45 morphometric variables also showed significant differences between apiaries. The mitochondrial haplotype analysis revealed a high representation of African A4 and A1 haplotypes (91%) in both apiaries. Haplotype variation was associated with morphometric and behavioral traits. Multivariate analyses [principal component analysis (PCA) and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)] including morphometric and behavior variables explained 65.3% (PCA) and 48.1% (PCoA) of the variability observed between colonies in the first two components. Several morphometric parameters and “fly” behavior were mainly associated with the separation of the colonies. The results from this study point to a possible association between morphometric and behavioral variation and the adaptation of honey bee colonies to differential agro-ecological conditions. We discuss how the detected variation between apiaries can be used for the selection and preservation of honey bee ecotypes in regional breeding programs.

Bee stings in Brazil: Epidemiological aspects in humans

Bees are insects of the order Hymenoptera and are involved in human accidents. In Brazil, bees that cause accidents are crosses derived from Europeans with African bees and are known for their aggressive behavior. Despite being considered an important public health concern, epidemiological studies at the national level are scarce. The objective of this study was to verify the epidemiological profile of bee accidents in humans in Brazil, using data from 2009 to 2019 of the Brazilian Ministry of Health. It was found that bee accidents increased by 207.61% from the first to the last year of the present study. The incidence varied according to the geographical region; the southern region had more bee accidents, but the Northern region had more deaths caused by bee accidents. Besides, climatic conditions were associated with susceptibility to bee stings; the incidence was higher during spring and summer. Age was also associated with fatality rate, with the elderly being the group with the highest fatality rate. Our results demonstrate that accidents caused by bees involve factors related to patients, the environment, and the behavior of bees. It is important to know the epidemiological aspects to help prevent apidic accidents.

Enzymatic responses in the head and midgut of Africanized Apis mellifera contaminated with a sublethal concentration of thiamethoxam

The increasing use of insecticides, promoted by the intensification of agriculture, has raised concerns about their influence on the decline of bee colonies, which play a fundamental role in pollination. Thus, it is fundamental to elucidate the effects of insecticides on bees. This study investigated the damage caused by a sublethal concentration of thiamethoxam - TMX (0.0227 ng/μL of feed) in the head and midgut of Africanized Apis mellifera, by analyzing the enzymatic biomarkers, oxidative stress, and occurrence of lipid peroxidation. The data showed that the insecticide increased acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST), whereas carboxylesterase (CaE3) activity decreased in the heads. Our results indicate that the antioxidant enzymes were less active in the head because only glutathione peroxidase (GPX) showed alterations. In the midgut, there were no alkaline phosphatase (ALP) or superoxide dismutase (SOD) responses and a decrease in the activity of CaE was observed. Otherwise, there was an increase in GPX, and the TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) assay also showed differences in the midgut. The TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) assay also showed differences in the midgut. The results showed enzymes such as CaE3, GST, AChE, ALP, SOD, and GPX, as well as the TBARS assay, are useful biomarkers on bees. They may be used in combination as a promising tool for characterizing bee exposure to insecticides.

Occurrence of pathogenic viruses in Africanized honey bees in Brazil

Approximately 72 pathogenic viruses have been described affecting the health of Apis mellifera colonies around the world, causing weakening and mortality of honey bees. The presence of viruses in Africanized honey bees (AHB) in Brazil is poorly studied and there is a lack of information about the occurrence of these viruses in the country. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of pathogenic viruses in AHB in Brazil. A total of 84 A. mellifera colonies from apiaries located in 15 different Brazilian states were evaluated to detect seven viral species (DWV, BQCV, IAPV, ABPV, CBPV, KBV, and SBV) by molecular analysis. We confirmed the presence of five viruses in 75% of our samples. The viruses with the highest prevalence were ABPV and IAPV, which occurred as single (20%) and multiple viral infections (80%). Multiple viral infections were present in all Brazilian states evaluated. Thus, pathogenic viruses in AHB are widely distributed in Brazil and therefore, frequent monitoring and appropriate colony management in Brazil might be important actions to prevent weakening and colony loss in Africanized honey bees.

Varroa destructor in Apis mellifera colonies in Brazil

We aimed to evaluate the occurrence and level of infestation by Varroa destructor in Apis mellifera from different regions and Köppen-Geiger climate typologies in Brazil. We evaluated a total of 159 managed colonies of A. mellifera (156 Africanized honey bees – AHB + 3 European honey bees – EHB colonies) distributed across all five Brazilian regions (Northern, Northeastern, Midwest, Southern, and Southeastern) from 2014 to 2017. In each colony, approximately 300 adult honey bees were collected to detect and calculate the mite parasitism level, and the A. mellifera colonies are not treated against the mite. Our results showed that V. destructor is disseminated across all Brazilian regions with low levels of infestation (3.8% ± 3.61). The mite infestation level per colony ranged from 0 to 17.4% with significant differences in the infestation level between the five Brazilian regions, where higher infestation levels were found in colonies installed in the Southern (4.1 ± 2.8) and Southeastern (7.2 ± 3.3) regions, and the lowest infestation levels were found in colonies installed in the Northern region (equal to zero). The climate associated with those Brazilian regions presented the lowest (Am and As – Northern region) and highest (C – Southern and Southeastern that are regions less tropical than Northern) Varroa infestation level. We conclude that V. destructor is dispersed in all regions of Brazil with low infestation levels which can be influenced by the climate typology of each region.

Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Peruvian Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Populations Using the tRNAleu-cox2 Intergenic Region.

Simple SummaryCurrently, the genetic diversity of Peruvian honey bee populations is unknown. Only two studies were carried out and suggest that many regions of Peru present Africanized honey bee colonies and a varied degree of Africanization. To molecularly characterize and know more about the genetic background of Peruvian honey bees, the highly polymorphic tRNAleu-cox2 was used. This study analyzed 512 colonies in three regions of Peru: Lima, Piura, and Junín. The results indicated that 65% colonies correspond to lineage A (African), 33.8% colonies to lineage C (Eastern European), and 1.2% colonies to lineage M (Western European). A total of 24 haplotypes were identified: 16 haplotypes belong to lineage A (sub-lineage AI (13), sub-lineage AIII (03)), lineage C (06), and lineage M (02), and 15 of them are for the first time reported and represented by A1t, A1u, A1w, A4p, A4q, A4s, A4t, A4u, A4v, A4w, 30d, A30e, A65, M7b, and M7c. Piura and Lima presented higher proportions of African haplotypes and lower proportions of haplotypes from lineage C than Lima. Very few haplotypes of lineage M were identified, whose presence could be due to accidental purchases or traces of honey bee introductions from lineage M in the 19th century. Hence, studies about the diversity and genetic structure of Peruvian honey bee populations are necessary to promote adequate, sustainable management and establish conservation and breeding programs.Mitochondrial DNA variations of Peruvian honey bee populations were surveyed by using the tRNAleu-cox2 intergenic region. Only two studies have characterized these populations, indicating the presence of Africanized honey bee colonies in different regions of Peru and varied levels of Africanization, but the current status of its genetic diversity is unknown. A total of 512 honey bee colonies were sampled from three regions to characterize them. Our results revealed the presence of European and African haplotypes: the African haplotypes identified belong to sub-lineage AI (13) and sub-lineage AIII (03), and the European haplotypes to lineages C (06) and M (02). Of 24 haplotypes identified, 15 new sequences are reported here (11 sub-lineage AI, 2 sub-lineage AIII, and 2 lineage M). Peruvian honey bee populations presented a higher proportion from African than European haplotypes. High proportions of African haplotype were reported for Piura and Junín, unlike Lima, which showed more European haplotypes from lineage C. Few colonies belonging to lineage M would represent accidental purchase or traces of the introduction into Peru in the 19th century.

Sublethal doses of glyphosate impair olfactory memory retention, but not learning in the honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata)

Sublethal doses of glyphosate impair olfactory memory retention, but not learning in the honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata)

A qPCR assay for sensitive and rapid detection of African A-lineage honey bees (Apis mellifera)

A real-time qPCR assay was designed to detect African-derived subspecies of western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). The probes targeted the same region of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene used in previous restriction enzyme assays. Using samples from 16 A. mellifera subspecies representing four lineages, we evaluated the efficacy of this assay to identify African- (or A-lineage) and non-A-lineage honey bees. The qPCR assay successfully differentiated A-lineage honey bees, including A. m. scutellata and A. m. capensis, from M-, C-, and O-lineage A. mellifera subspecies. In conclusion, the assay we developed is useful for rapid detection of A-lineage honey bees in areas where they are introduced, although it cannot be used to identify the specific A. mellifera subspecies within the A-lineage.