Affluent Backgrounds Research Articles

TV adverts, materialism, and children’s self-esteem: The role of socio-economic status

Levels of debt and poor mental health are at an all-time high among UK families, while the gap between rich and poor has also widened. Exposure and susceptibility to advertising, belief that purchased products will lead to happiness (materialism), and poor mental well-being have been shown to be linked in previous research, but the role of children’s socio-economic status has seldom been taken into account. A greater understanding of the effects of this dynamic among those without the ready money to purchase highly advertised and desired products is important, particularly given the connections with children’s low self-esteem. This study aimed to (1) quantify differences in TV advertising exposure, materialism, and self-esteem between deprived and affluent children, (2) measure differences in susceptibility to the effect of TV advertising exposure on materialism between deprived and affluent children, and (3) measure differences in susceptibility to the effect of materialism on self-esteem between deprived and affluent children. It was found that children from deprived backgrounds were more materialistic than children from affluent homes, and that this was the result of both higher exposure to advertising and higher belief in the credibility of advertising. At the same time, we found that children from affluent backgrounds were more susceptible to advertising’s reinforcing effect on materialism, whereas children from deprived background were more susceptible to materialism’s detrimental effect on self-esteem. Two different dynamics appear to be at play in the two groups. This adds a new dimension to our understanding of the role of advertising in a society with high levels of inequality.

Widening the gap? The challenges for equitable music education in Scotland

Exposure to and potential to engage in music is now very different for children and young people from more middle‐class and affluent backgrounds compared to those from working‐class or poor households. Middle‐class children and young people have access to opportunities to learn an instrument and engage in performance, predominantly for intrinsic reward and on occasion as the basis of a future career. Children and young people from more working class or poor backgrounds are more likely to be excluded from these opportunities and are less likely to take advantage of opportunities within the wider world of music industries. This research draws on in depth case studies of three local authorities in Scotland to reveal the ways in which local provision for music education is largely being reshaped by economic factors and restraints. Drawing on aspects of critical theory it discusses the ways in which economic‐based decisions are interacting with the dominant social and cultural values to influence provision. It makes the argument that in an era of austerity the social and cultural values of the middle class are dominant and effectively increasing inequality in access to music. Children and young people from poor or working class households are increasingly excluded from opportunities to engage with formal music provision.

The Psychology of Entrenched Privilege: High Socioeconomic Status Individuals From Affluent Backgrounds Are Uniquely High in Entitlement.

As rates of intergenerational social mobility decline, it is increasingly important to understand the psychological consequences of entrenched socioeconomic privilege. Here, we explore whether current and childhood socioeconomic status (SES) are interactively related to entitlement, such that among currently high SES individuals, those from affluent backgrounds are likely to feel uniquely high levels of entitlement, whereas currently low SES individuals feel low entitlement regardless of their backgrounds. A meta-analysis of four exploratory studies (total N = 3,105) found that currently high SES individuals who were also raised in high SES households were especially inclined to report feeling entitled, a pattern that was robust across three indicators of SES: income, education, and subjective SES. Results of a preregistered, confirmatory study (N = 1,058) replicated this interactive pattern for education and subjective SES, though not for income. Our findings highlight the importance of considering current and childhood SES jointly to understand the psychological consequences of SES.

The role of private education in the selection of primary care careers in low and middle-income countries. Findings from a representative survey of medical residents in Brazil

BackgroundPrimary health care (PHC) doctors’ numbers are dwindling in high- as well as low-income countries, which is feared to hamper the achievement of Universal Health Coverage goals. As a large proportion of doctors are privately educated and private medical schools are becoming increasingly common in middle-income settings, there is a debate on whether private education represents a suitable mean to increase the supply of PHC physicians. We analyse the intentions to practice of medical residents in Brazil to understand whether these differ for public and private schools.MethodsDrawing from the literature on the selection of medical specialties, we constructed a model for the determinants of medical students’ intentions to practice in PHC, and used secondary data from a nationally representative sample of 4601 medical residents in Brazil to populate it. Multivariate analysis and multilevel cluster models were employed to explore the association between perspective physicians’ choice of practice and types of schools attended, socio-economic characteristics, and their values and opinions on the profession.ResultsOnly 3.7% of residents in our sample declared an intention to practice in PHC, with no significant association with the public or private nature of the medical schools attended. Instead, having attended a state secondary school (p = 0.028), having trained outside Brazil’s wealthy South East (p < 0.001), not coming from an affluent family (p = 0.037), and not having a high valuation of career development opportunities (p < 0.001) were predictors of willingness to practice in PHC. A low consideration for quality of life, for opportunities for treating patients, and for the liberal aspects of the profession were also associated with future physicians’ intentions to work in primary care (all p < 0.001).ConclusionsIn Brazil, training in public or private medical schools does not influence the intention to practice in PHC. But students from affluent backgrounds, with private secondary education, and graduating in the rich South East were found to be overrepresented in both types of training institutions, and this is what appears to negatively impact the selection of PHC careers. With a view to increasing the supply of PHC practitioners in middle-income countries, policies should focus on opening medical schools in rural areas and improving access for students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The winners and the losers of the platform economy: who participates?

ABSTRACTThe platform economy is rapidly transforming the dynamics of the labor market. Optimists argue platform work functions as a social equalizer, opening opportunities for additional earnings for those who need it most. Pessimists suggest that the platform economy widens earning disparities by providing additional income to people who already have good jobs. We contribute to this debate by examining who participates in the platform economy and their motivation for participation, using a US nationally representative sample. Our findings offer support for both perspectives. Those who participated in labor-exchange platforms were more likely to come from disadvantaged backgrounds. By contrast, those who participated in online selling platforms were more likely to come from more affluent backgrounds. When we further examined different types of platform work, we found that different types of platform work were performed by different demographic and social groups. In addition, participation in some platform work, such as rideshare driving and house/laundry cleaning, is motivated out of necessity, while other platform work, such as selling used goods and performing online tasks, is generally used to supplement incomes. Distinct occupations tend to benefit different social groups in different ways and, taken together, disadvantaged groups are less likely to perform types of platform work that would improve their economic position and reduce income disparities. This tends to offer more support for the pessimist’s perspective. We conclude that the platform economy is strongly segregated by occupation and it should be examined as a set of distinct occupations rather than a homogenous industry.

Energy drink consumption pattern among university students in North East England

Abstract Background Energy drinks (EDs) are popular beverages with young people, particularly in the UK. There is an emerging evidence base on the negative health impacts in children and adolescents, largely relating to the high caffeine and sugar contents of these drinks. However, no studies have been conducted to date focusing on university students in the UK. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors underpinning ED consumption, as well as health effects reported by students. Methods An online survey was conducted with a non-representative sample of 900 students from the five universities in the North East of England. This included questions on ED consumption, perceived stress (10-item PSS), general health status, personal wellbeing (ONS4), lifestyle and use of other substances such as alcohol. Responses were analysed using SPSS. Results 84% of respondents (n = 756) had consumed EDs at least once, mainly while partying or during revision. Of these ED consumers, 542 (71.7%) reported experiencing symptoms following intake, with the most common being elevation of heart rate and palpitations. No associations were found between ED consumption and perceived stress or wellbeing, but an inverse U-shaped association was observed with self-reported health (i.e. lowest consumption among those who rated their health as either “very good” or “bad”). Consumers were more likely to be male, White, from the UK, less affluent backgrounds, and report having no religion. Co-consumption with alcohol was common in the cohort (46.2%). Those who used substances such as cigarettes, e-cigarettes and cannabis were also more likely to be ED consumers. Conclusions ED consumption is highly prevalent in the student population, linked to socioeconomic and cultural factors rather than perceived stress or wellbeing. Prevention campaigns targeting students should aim to raise awareness of the consequences of chronic and acute ED consumption, particularly in conjunction with other substances. Key messages ED consumption is highly prevalent in the student population, often in conjunction with alcohol. Consumption is linked to socioeconomic and cultural factors rather than perceived stress or personal wellbeing.

Let Them Eat Beans? Class and American Food Discourse during the Progressive Era

ABSTRACT Using primary sources from home economics and social work archival collections, this article considers the discourse of American food and nutrition experts of the Progressive Era (roughly 1890 to 1920) in relation to class. These experts, a protean group that included scientists, home economists, social reformers, and self-styled experts on diet from largely middle-class or affluent backgrounds, were writing at a time of intense class conflict replete with numerous strikes and the violent suppression of labor. Through an analysis of experts’ commentaries and tracts on diet and nutrition, this article proposes that, while they evinced considerable condescension toward the poor, the experts noted in this article appeared earnest in their convictions that they were applying their expertise in ways that could help the working classes consume “economically” without sacrificing on nutrition. The poor and working classes, however, were justifiably skeptical, and in some cases, hostile, to dietary interventions and instructions.

A reassessment of socio-economic gradients in child cognitive development using growth mixture models

Recent social and educational policy debate in the UK has been strongly influenced by studies that have found children’s cognitive developmental trajectories to be significantly affected by the socio-economic status of the households into which they were born. Most notably, using data from the 1970 British cohort study, Feinstein (2003) concluded that children from less-advantaged backgrounds who scored high on cognitive tests at 22 months had been overtaken by age seven by children from more advantaged origins, who had scored lower on the baseline test. However, questions have been raised about the methodological robustness of these studies, particularly the possibility that their key findings are, at least in part, an artefact of regression to the mean. In this paper, we assess growth mixture models as an alternative approach for identifying and explaining cognitive developmental trajectories in children which is robust to regression to the mean. We apply this approach to children’s cognitive test score data from the Millennium Cohort Study. Our findings provide no support for the contention that more initially able children from disadvantaged backgrounds are ‘overtaken’ in cognitive development by less initially able children from more affluent backgrounds. We do, however, find that cognitive developmental trajectories are related to socio-economic status, such that initial class-based inequalities increase over time.

The Effects of State‐Mandated Financial Education on College Financing Behaviors

AbstractStudents entering college have limited financial experience while making complex borrowing decisions. This paper examines a policy lever that may improve these decisions: high school personal finance graduation requirements. We use a difference‐in‐difference strategy to determine their effects on financial aid decisions of incoming freshmen at 4‐year institutions. Our results suggest financial education shifts students from high‐cost to low‐cost financing. The requirements increase aid applications and acceptance of federal loans, while decreasing the likelihood of holding credit card balances. Students from less affluent family backgrounds reduce their likelihoods of working and borrowers from more affluent backgrounds reduce private loan amounts.

Run Over by the Globe: Overcoming the Flat World and Reinventing the Educational Wheel in U.S. Urban Schools

Despite ongoing reform efforts, academic achievement in the U.S. educational system is declining both on internal measures as well as on international comparative assessments. While students from affluent backgrounds continue to do well academically, there is a growing achievement gap as underprivileged urban students fall further behind. This report builds on the work of scholars including Schultz, Tough, and Darling-Hammond and describes these challenges for our education system, and then demonstrates how some successful urban schools have been able to achieve progress despite great hurdles. Furthermore, this work looks abroad to examine how other countries are able to attain a higher level of achievement and do so equitably. The essay concludes by arguing that by looking to these examples, effective reforms can be designed to increase academic achievement and also promote equity.

Second-Chance Alternatives and Maintained Inequality in Access to Higher Education in Israel

Students are expected to obtain a matriculation diploma during their high school years. Throughout the world, it is considered as a precondition to gaining access to higher education. However, those who failed to meet this criterion can employ, in some cases, “second-chance” alternatives—either to obtain a diploma at an older age, or to enter specific academic programs that do not require one. The literature on second-chance alternatives tends to concentrate on these programs’ evaluation. It rarely addresses the overall effect of these programs on inequality of educational opportunities (IEO). The current study focuses on Israelis who failed to gain a matriculation diploma at their high school graduation and contemplate on the effects that ethnic differences between them play on their chances to enter higher education. Based on a new Panel survey (2012–2016), we found that Israelis from affluent ethnic backgrounds were able to increase their chances to access higher education using “second-chance alternatives”. Those from minority groups, most notably Arabs, were less likely to benefit from these alternatives. While originally aimed at improving higher education enrolment for people from disadvantaged backgrounds, these “second-chance alternatives” resulted in an increase of ethnic-based IEO. Considering the lower rates of Israelis who utilise them, we deduct that these programs “failed” to accomplish their original purpose. However, we argue that they merit further research since their understanding can benefit researchers and policy makers.

Tailoring lifestyle interventions to low socio-economic populations: a qualitative study

BackgroundPeople living in deprived areas are more likely to be overweight or obese, have poorer health outcomes, and tend to benefit less from interventions than those from more affluent backgrounds. One approach to address such health inequalities is to tailor existing interventions to low socio-economic populations, yet there is limited evidence to inform their design. This study aims to identify how best to tailor lifestyle interventions to low socio-economic populations to improve outcomes.MethodsFollowing direct observations of community-run weight loss groups, we interviewed 11 group facilitators and 14 service users from a health improvement service in a low socio-economic area in the North West of England. Audio-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically.ResultsWe identified two overarching themes within the data. The first theme, managing diversity, included challenges faced in delivering a generic intervention to a diverse population in terms of knowledge, language and literacy skills, and cultural diversity. The second theme incorporated all issues relating to the environment, such as cost, access and availability of food and leisure facilities, and ‘life gets in the way’.ConclusionsTailoring interventions for this population is necessary, and more attention is needed to develop ways to ensure service providers and users engage with behaviour change techniques such as goal setting, rather than focusing on information provision alone. Interventions should also be mindful of cost, cultural diversity, and language and literacy barriers, as well as potential for disengaging this hard to reach population.

Socioeconomic differences in the health behaviour of children and adolescents in Germany. Results of the cross-sectional KiGGS Wave 2 study.

Childhood and adolescence are key determining stages for health behaviour in the life course. Frequently, health-related attitudes and patterns of behaviour that develop at young age are also maintained at adult age. As studies show, already during childhood and adolescence, patterns of health risk behaviour are more common in certain population groups. KiGGS Wave 2 results confirm that 3- to 17-year-old children and adolescents from families with low socioeconomic status (SES) eat a less healthy diet, do fewer sports and are more often overweight or obese than their peers from more affluent backgrounds. Whereas socioeconomic differences appear to have little effect on levels of alcohol consumption among 11- to 17 year-olds, girls and boys with low SES smoke more frequently than their peers with high SES. Prevention and health promotion encourage children and adolescents to adopt healthy lifestyles, and aim to drive structural changes to stimulate behaviour which promotes good health. Combining measures that target individual behaviour and a settings-based approach appears to be the most promising preventative approach to reduce health inequalities among young people. Due to the clear impacts of socioeconomic differences on health behaviour already at young age measures for disadvantaged children and adolescents and their living conditions should be given an even stronger focus in the future.

Disparities in eating disorder diagnosis and treatment according to weight status, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic background, and sex among college students.

Eating disorders (EDs) present a significant threat to the health of adolescents and young adults, yet remain under-diagnosed and under-treated at a population-level. EDs have historically been thought to afflict "skinny, white, affluent girls" (the SWAG stereotype). As such, higher-weight individuals, racial/ethnic minorities, those from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, and males may not recognize their need for treatment, may not be properly screened for EDs, and/or may not be referred to treatment. Using large-scale survey data from the healthy bodies study, we examined variations in prevalence of perceived need for ED treatment, ED diagnosis, past-year ED treatment, and treatment barriers according to weight status, race, socioeconomic background, and sex among undergraduate and graduate students with symptoms of an ED (N = 1,747). Among students with symptoms of an ED, 30.7% perceived a need for treatment, 10.5% had received a diagnosis, and 13.6% had received treatment in the past year. Individual characteristics were highly associated with perceived need, diagnosis, and past-year treatment. Females were more likely than males to perceive a need for treatment (OR = 1.97), to be diagnosed (OR = 4.66), and to be treated (OR = 1.64) for their ED symptoms. Socioeconomic background was associated with perceived need for treatment and past-year treatment, with students from affluent backgrounds having higher odds of perceiving need (OR = 1.52) and of receiving treatment (OR = 1.89) compared with their non-affluent peers. At a population-level, the unmet need for ED treatment disproportionately affects certain groups. Stereotypes about who develops EDs could contribute to disparities in ED treatment and outcomes.

Compromise and complicity in international student mobility: the ethnographic case of Indian medical students at a Chinese university

ABSTRACTExisting scholarship on international student mobility (ISM) often draws on Bourdieu to interpret such mobility as a strategy of capital conversion used by privileged classes to reproduce their social advantage. This perspective stems from and also reinforces a rationalistic interpretation of student mobility. A shift of focus to interAsian educational mobilities involving non-elite individuals and institutions can reveal logics of behavior and of social interaction that are at discrepancy with the dominant perspective, thereby advancing the theorization of educational mobilities. This paper examines a case of Indian youths of less affluent backgrounds pursuing English-medium medical degrees (MBBS) at a provincial university in China. Through ethnography, the paper illustrates how various parties – individual, organizational and institutional – to this somewhat ‘unlikely’ project of knowledge mobility follow the discrepant logics of compromise and complicity to seek to realize their educational desires, social aspirations, and organizational objectives amidst realities of class disadvantage and resource inadequacy.

The Exclusionist Framing of Study Abroad Electronic Advertising and its Potential Influence on Students of Color Participation

Aim/Purpose: This qualitative study examines the discourse of study abroad (SA) electronic advertising and how it potentially constrains participation by students of color in education abroad using a critical race theory (CRT) perspective. Background: Through visual and text communication, SA advertisements define the SA participant as affluent and White and construct SA as opportunities for tourism and recreation, while down-playing academic engagement along with other intellectual benefits. These practices can play a major role in determining who studies abroad. Methodology: This qualitative study employed content and thematic analysis to examine and analyze advertisements for study abroad through a CRT lens. A review of online advertisements for study abroad made available on the selected institutions’ websites, and those of their affiliated third party provider (TPP) was conducted. A line-by-line reading of collected advertisements led to the creation of identified themes which served as categories for analysis. Contribution: Using documents from two institutions and two third party providers (TPP), the researchers explored the language and images used to advertise SA experiences in order to open discussions surrounding the issues related to current practices and the potential benefit addressing these practices could have on expanding SA experiences to more students of color. Findings: Four major themes emerged from this research: homogenization of the study abroad population, study abroad as recreation, study abroad as tourism, and de-accentuation of academic learning. The participant profile for study abroad is largely homogeneous, and advertising produced by SA offices and TPP often perpetuate this homogeneity. An analysis of electronic ads revealed an underlying assumption that SA participants are predominantly White students from affluent backgrounds, whose main objective for participating in SA is immersion in a “different” culture and to fulfill a thirst for adventure. From our analysis it was found that included images were overwhelmingly of non-Students of Color. Images found of students engaging in activities while abroad perpetuated wealth, class and Whiteness. The absence of images of Students of Color (SOC) was disturbingly conspicuous, while the heavy use of images of White students communicated to the researcher and to potential participants who view these ads, that the target population is middle to upper class, White students. Recommendations for Practitioners: SA is a costly undertaking and the challenge of paying for an overseas educational experience cannot be overemphasized. For SOC and their families, paying for SA can seem like an unnecessary expense in addition to the increasing cost of higher education. When SA ads depict the experience as an adventure and emphasize recreational activities at the expense of academic engagement, students and their families often question the rationale for spending money to go abroad for recreation. Excursions can serve as a very important part of SA, particularly in helping students engage with the local community. However, their value can only be realized when they are clearly linked to the academic goals of the program. Such connections should be made explicit in SA ads if institutions expect to attract minority students who might be apprehensive about the value of SA. Providing opportunities for SOC to see themselves as possible SA participants has the potential to not only enrich their college experiences but encourage future SOC to explore these valuable educational opportunities. Recommendation for Researchers: We recommend further study into the specific policy and practices used by institutions and TPPs to inform institutional community members of opportunities to study abroad beyond advertisements provided on websites. Additionally, further investigation is needed to better understand the specific feelings, emotions, and actions advertisements similar to the ones reviewed for this study develop within students of color and what can be done to advance study abroad as a more inclusive academic experience. Impact on Society: Ultimately, increasing the number of students of color participating in study abroad can have a dramatic impact on who and how future cohorts of students participate. The more SA experiences are viewed and valued as an educational experience by SOC and their families, opportunities for future students to participate will be expanded. Furthermore, it is imperative for institutions to support and encourage students from diverse backgrounds to engage in study abroad as a mechanism for better preparing students for an ever-increasing competitive global workforce. Future Research: Future research directed at better understanding the characteristics of SOCs that do choose to study abroad and insight into the added value these experiences have on students’ academic experiences and professional development is needed. There is a dearth of literature related to these areas of interest that could expand our knowledge and understanding related to SA participation and its benefits to all students.

Financing Graduate and Professional Education: How Students Pay

Thirteen percent of adults in the United States ages 25 and older hold advanced degrees — master’s, doctoral or professional degrees. The first brief in this series reported that bachelor’s degree recipients from low-income households are less likely than other graduates to pursue advanced degrees and are less likely than students from more affluent backgrounds to complete them. High tuition prices and living expenses may provide one explanation for these unequal outcomes. This brief examines how students finance their graduate and professional education. It summarizes the sources of funds used to cover the tuition and fees universities charge, as well as living expenses. Institutions set a “cost of attendance” (COA) for students, estimating the average budget for one academic year (fall through spring). COA includes tuition and fees, books and supplies, room and board, transportation, and other living expenses, and it establishes the maximum amount students can borrow in federal student loans to attend a particular school. These official budgets serve as the foundation for the discussion that follows about how graduate and professional degree students pay for their education. It is critical to understand that COA is subjective. Since most graduate students do not live in campus housing, actual living expenses depend on local prices for food and housing, as well as the lifestyle choices students make. As the data below reveal, the budgets institutions set for graduate and professional students are frequently quite generous relative to budgets set for undergraduate students and living standards set by the federal government. Many students use earnings from employment and federal loans to fund their graduate and professional education. But financing patterns differ a great deal across and within types of programs. This brief explores these patterns by describing average budgets for graduate and professional degree students and the funding sources used to cover these budgets.

Smoking related attitudes, motives, and behaviors of male secondary school students in an urban setting of China.

BackgroundMost smokers have their first experience of cigarette use when they are teenagers (i.e. at schools). Aiming tobacco control initiatives at secondary school students offers preventive measures to eliminate or reduce tobacco use initiation by students. This study assessed smoking-related attitudes, motives and behavior as well as other factors associated with smoking among male secondary school students in an urban setting in China.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted in urban areas of Chongqing using a structured questionnaire administered to 1297 male secondary school students. Logistic regression analysis was employed to investigate the factors that affect smoking.ResultsOf the participants (n = 1297), 27.7% were secondary and 72.3% were middle school students. Overall, 30.5% of the participants were smokers. The majority of the students procured their first cigarette from friends. The motivations of middle school students to smoke their first cigarette were curiosity (70.5%) and imitation (13.1%). The motivations of high school students for smoking their first cigarette were to satisfy their curiosity (51.8%), relief of stress and social pressures (17.1%), and imitation of smoker friends (15.9%). Respondents from poor family financial conditions were more likely to smoke than those from rich family financial conditions [odds ratio (OR) 1.59, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.00, 2.52]. Respondents whose fathers were smokers were more likely to smoke than those whose fathers were non-smokers (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.25, 2.17). Respondents who had one or two smoker friends (OR 2.98, 95% CI 1.93, 4.60) and three or more smoker friends (OR 5.92, 95% CI 4.35, 8.05) were more likely to smoke than those who did not have any. Respondents who were neutral (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.20, 0.91) and disagreed about the item “friends smoking” (OR 0.18, 95% CI 0.08, 0.39) were less likely to smoke than those who agreed with the item.ConclusionsThis study indicates that male students who have negative attitudes toward smoking, who do not have a father or friends who smoke, and are from affluent backgrounds exhibit low tendency to start smoking at a young age. This study provides some implications for tobacco control policies among male secondary school students in urban settings.

Stressed and Losing Sleep: Sleep Duration and Perceived Stress Among Affluent Adolescent Females

This study examined the relationship between stress and sleep duration for adolescent females from affluent backgrounds. Participants were 218 students attending two independent single-sex secondary schools. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression models (cross-sectional and longitudinal) were run to examine the association between stress and sleep duration and to determine whether any associations lasted from the beginning to the end of the academic year. In the cross-sectional models, the relationship between perceived stress and sleep duration was reciprocal and negative. Findings from the longitudinal analyses suggested that perceived stress had lingering negative effects on sleep. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

¿Cómo evaluar a los integrantes de la élite política? Una propuesta basada en los presidentes americanos

Este artículo repasa críticamente el estudio sobre la élite política, incluyendo la evolución histórica de su significado, rol, composición, independencia y las opciones para analizar a sus miembros. Argumenta que para avanzar en el estudio de los integrantes de la élite es necesario examinar sus diferencias individuales. A modo de ejercicio, se abordan algunas diferencias individuales de quienes están en la cúspide de la élite política en sistemas presidenciales, los presidentes. El análisis muestra que, tomados como grupo, los presidentes del continente tienen un origen socioeconómico medianamente acomodado, al menos un tercio ha sido abogado o participado en fuerzas de seguridad, y que tienden a puntuar bajo en amabilidad y neuroticismo, moderadamente alto en extraversión y apertura a la experiencia, y alto en responsabilidad. Este ejercicio sugiere una agenda de investigación que puede extenderse a otros integrantes de la élite.