Adult Migrants Research Articles

Multilingual language assistants, investment and social justice in second language learning for adult newcomers

This article investigates the significance of the use of multilingual language assistants (MLAs) in second language teaching for adult migrants with limited formal schooling. Norton’s theories of investmentand critical pedagogy serve as an analytical backdrop. An emic perspective is adopted, with interviews with nine adult learners taking centre stage. The data also includes interviews with three teachers, as well as classroom observations. Analysis of the learner interviews points to the importance of the MLAs when it comes to meeting the adult newcomers’ basic needs for security, understanding and recognition. The data as a whole suggests that MLAs contribute to the language learners participating more actively in the learning process. The analysis provides insight into possibilities and limitations for second language learning, related to the subject positions available in the classroom, whether or not their linguistic capital is recognised and their access to new linguistic capital, and the different language ideologies at play. The purpose of the article is to encourage reflections on learning conditions for adult newcomers with limited formal schooling.

Political Attitudes and National Identity of Mainland Chinese Migrants in Hong Kong

Abstract: Using data from the 2017 Hong Kong Panel Study of Social Dynamics, this article investigates the political attitudes and national identity of Chinese migrants in Hong Kong. The study reveals a negative association between refugee experiences and support for pro-government parties, a negative association between refugee experiences and national identity, and a positive association between premigration socialisation and support for pro-government parties. Adult undocumented migrants reported lower levels of support for pro-government parties and weaker national identity compared to adult documented migrants. Documented migrants who arrived in Hong Kong at age 16 or older reported higher levels of support for pro-government parties than those who arrived at younger ages.

Participation on whose terms? Applied linguistics, politics and social justice

The aim of this position paper is to engage with the focus of this yearbook on language and participation by revisiting some of the arguments advanced by the North American political philosopher Nancy Fraser, who theorized (1) the structural components that enable and/or constrain participation, and (2) the ways in which we can transform the status quo with a view to achieving a more just society. The paper begins by outlining Fraser’s main ideas; it then moves on to illustrate how this theoretical framework may help us shed light on the dilemmas and/or pitfalls of well-meaning initiatives that seek to enhance adult migrants’ participation. The empirical focus is on courses in civic orientation (samhällsorientering) for newly arrived adult migrants in Sweden. The paper ends with some reflections about the importance of a politically engaged applied linguistics.

Adult Migrants’ Language Learning, Labour Market, and Social Inclusion

In this thematic issue, we present up‐to‐date research from authors who problematise the various links between adult migrants’ language learning, education, the labour market, and social inclusion. Some contributions are more focused on the relation between education and social inclusion, while others emphasise links between language learning, the labour market, and social inclusion. Together, authors in this thematic issue point to the multiple challenges migrants face when trying to establish themselves in a new country.

Adult Migrants’ Language Training in Austria: The Role of Central and Eastern European Teachers

Language has gained increasing importance in immigration policies in Western European states, with a new model of citizenship, the <em>ius linguarum</em> (Fejes, 2019; Fortier, 2022), at its core. Accordingly, command of the (national) languages of host states operates both as a resource and as an ideological framework, legitimating the reproduction of inequalities among various migrant and non‐migrant groups. In this article, we analyse the implications of such processes in the context of state‐subsidised language teaching for refugees and migrants in Austria. Specifically, the article aims to explore labour migration, namely that of Central and Eastern European (CEE, including EU and non‐EU citizen) professionals—mainly language teachers who enter the field of adult language teaching in Austria seeking a living and career prospects that they cannot find in the significantly underpaid educational sectors of CEE states. This article shows that the arrival of CEE professionals into these difficult and precarious jobs is enabled first by historical processes linking the CEE region to former political and economic power centres. Second, it is facilitated by legal, administrative, and symbolic processes that construct CEE citizens as second‐order teachers in the field of migrant education in Austria. Our article, based on ethnographic fieldwork and qualitative interviews, highlights nuanced ways in which historically, economically, and politically embedded language geographies contribute to the reproduction of hierarchies of membership, inclusion, and exclusion in present‐day immigration societies.

Experiences of catch-up vaccination among adult migrants in the UK: An in-depth interview study

Abstract WHO's Immunization Agenda 2030 emphasises equitable access to vaccination across the life course, including migrants who may have missed childhood vaccinations due to disrupted healthcare systems or differing vaccination schedules. Uptake of adult catch-up vaccination is thought to be poor in the UK, but limited evidence exists to explain this. In-depth semi-structured interviews were carried out across two studies with different adult migrant populations on views and experiences around vaccination. Study 1 recruited those resident <10 years in the UK from a range of backgrounds (remote interviews, 09/2020-01/2022, REC2020.0058) and Study 2 (in-person, 01/2022-03/2022, REC2021.0128) engaged Congolese and Angolan migrants. Interviews were conducted in English, Lingala or French and were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analysed through qualitative content analysis in NVivo 12. 71 participants were interviewed (mean age 43.6 [SD:12.4], 69% female, mean 9.5 [SD:7] yrs in UK). Most reported having never been offered or asked about vaccination history in the UK. Participants more often reported being offered seasonal or selective vaccinations (flu [n = 20], travel-related [n = 8], pregnancy-related [pertussis, n = 7]) compared to catch-up vaccines (MMR (n = 3), DTP (n = 3)) in the UK. Generally, participants were not aware of catch-up vaccination but viewed it mostly positively. Concerns included side effects, barriers to attending primary care facilities, and vaccination fatigue. Trust was an important factor in vaccination decisions, and participants expressed varying levels of trust towards healthcare professionals’ recommendations and the NHS. There is a need to increase opportunities for catch-up vaccination in primary care by incentivisation of catch-up vaccination and education of healthcare professionals. Low trust and concerns around safety exist in some migrant groups, for which tailored information campaigns or community-led interventions could be developed. Key messages • There is a need to increase opportunities for catch-up vaccination in primary care. • Low trust and concerns around safety exist in some migrant groups, for which tailored information campaigns or community-led interventions could be developed.

Social Inclusion Through Multilingual Assistants in Additional Language Learning

The aim of this study is to evaluate and explore the deployment of adult migrants’ first languages (L1s) by multilingual assistants (MAs) in additional language (AL) learning for the opportunities they afford to include students. The context is Sweden’s Swedish for Immigrants programme, in which a teacher team appointed MAs to support their students’ efforts to learn Swedish. In this context, MAs aremultilingual school personnel employed to support the students in their Swedish language development by, among other means, using the students’ L1s. The ensuing research study set out to investigate and develop MA and teacher roles in promoting Swedish language development through L1 use. The quest to include the students permeated this investigation. Action research provided a framework for the teachers to study their classroom interaction with MAs as a basis for professional development. Group interviews complemented video data. Different dimensions of inclusion and Bakhtin’s thinking about other‐orientedness offer theoretical support. The results are presented as four cardinal contributions made by MAs with significant potential to include adult migrants in AL education. The teachers’ conception of dialogic activity specifies inclusion as a transsubjective enterprise that, through instructional restraint and translingual space, allows students to explore language and achieve progressively coherent responsive understanding. The MAs’ socioemotional work of reassuring, affirming, and imparting faith in student capabilities to communicate in and learn Swedish posits inclusion as an equilibrium between the demands of instructional situations and the psychological fortitude to manage them. MAs key role in contextualizing content illustrates the way inclusion can be realized by transferring language form and content to the students’ personal experiences, extensive knowledge, and everyday communicative realities. The teacher’s plan to entrust the MAs with the task of making their formative feedback accessible to students projects inclusion as increasing students’ capacity to regulate their AL learning themselves.

Novel ways to drive catch-up vaccination of adult migrants in UK primary care: a pilot study

Abstract Adult and adolescent migrants to Europe may have missed routine vaccinations and must be aligned with European schedules, but awareness and implementation of catch-up guidelines in UK primary care is poor. We conducted a pilot study of novel primary care mechanisms (May ‘21-Sept ‘22) to explore under-immunisation and increase catch-up vaccination of migrants ( > =16 years, born outside W. Europe, N. America, Australia, or New Zealand) in 2 London boroughs. We recorded vaccination history, past vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD), and prompted staff to offer MMR, Td/IPV, HPV, MenACWY vaccines according to UK guidelines on uncertain or incomplete immunisation status. Data were analysed in STATA12. We included 57 participants (mean age 41 [SD 7.2] years; 62% female; mean 11.3 [SD 9.1] years in UK) from 18 countries. Demographic distributions were not significantly different between boroughs (sites) for age, sex, or years in UK, but differed by birth region (p < 0.0001). Nearly all participants required vaccination for MMR (86%) and Td/IPV (88%), suggesting migrants would benefit from catch-up vaccination on arrival.12/22 participants reported a past VPD (15 cases including measles, rubella, pertussis, active TB, HPV, hepatitis A, HPV, meningitis). 93% of participants were referred for catch-up vaccination and 81% had at least one dose (at study end). Start of vaccination was higher in Site 2 (100%) than Site 1 (44%). Half (30, 59%) of those referred for MMR completed the course (2 doses) by study end. Less than half (17, 41%) referred for Td/IPV had received at least 1 dose at study end. Direct and indirect barriers exist to delivering catch-up vaccines to migrants, including staff knowledge/training; incomplete vaccination records; lack of incentives, time and care pathways. Designated staff champions, financial incentives and awareness are needed to drive catch-up vaccination in primary care, alongside novel ways to deliver vaccinations at scale and in the community. Key messages • Designated staff champions, incentives and other mechanisms to raise staff awareness and willingness to engage with guidelines are needed to drive catch-up vaccination in primary care. • Novel ways to deliver vaccinations at scale and use of community-based or community-led interventions are needed to advance vaccine equity and ensure inclusion of marginalised migrant groups.

Critical Social Inclusion of Adult Migrant Language Learners in Working Life: Experiences From SFI and LINC Programs

How can integration education programs facilitate the more seamless inclusion of migrant newcomers into working life and civil society? Traditionally, integration policy and practice have been framed within a nation‐state discourse in which views of migrant incorporation are grounded within a bordered nationalism embodying a native–migrant dichotomy that reifies the view of the “migrant other” as a subject defined by its “lack” in competence and agency. In our qualitative multiple case study, we explored the bridging potential of integration programs in facilitating the inclusion of migrant students within working life in Helsinki and Edmonton. We examined the “inclusectionalities,” referring to the intersections of inclusion and exclusion that position adults enrolled in SFI (Swedish for Immigrants) and LINC (Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada) language integration programs in the liminal spaces between belonging and othering. Guided by an understanding of critical social inclusion where migrants set the boundaries for interactions with authorities based upon their own needs and interests, we propose a transformational approach. Here migrant learners participate in a structural process where the fluid nature of social, political, and economic arrangements is consistently renegotiated on principles of egalitarianism and the full exercise of critical agency, herein envisioned as deliberate action resisting the social domination of racialized minorities by challenging and redefining institutional structures.

No(r)way? Language Learning, Stereotypes, and Social Inclusion Among Poles in Norway

This study recognizes the diversity and heterogeneous nature of a migrant group that long has been portrayed and perceived in a limited way, for instance in Norwegian media, without considering the multifaceted nature of the group in question. Drawing on data from focus group interviews, we apply narrative analysis to shed light on the impact stereotypes surrounding Poles have on Polish adult migrants’ striving for social inclusion and professional success in Norway. Being the largest migrant group in Norway, speaking a first language (L1) structurally different from Norwegian, and representing a former Eastern Bloc country, Poles constitute an important case to gain better knowledge of the interplay between language, labour, and social inclusion. Through our study, we aim to gain emic insights into parts of the process of settling in Norway. Our analysis centres on a case study of two focus group participants’ reactions to stereotypical portrayals of Polish (professionals) in Norwegian media, experiences with language learning, and the advice they would give to newcomers, as well as the importance of a sense of community for gaining the “small talk” competence necessary to ease social inclusion. The analysis draws on the key concepts of agency, investment, and well‐being. We show how the tension that occurs when second language (L2) participants are confronted with stereotypes may create a discursive space for empowerment and agency through the opportunity to contest and re‐create (professional) expectancies. The study also demonstrates that there most likely are ways forward to more inclusive practices for Polish migrants in Norway.

Remembering pasts: historical-political adult education and remembrance in the migration society

ABSTRACT The idea of one shared past, can develop identity-building potential. Nevertheless, there are diverse memory practices in plural societies and they are an expression of shared, divided, and conflicting memories. The negotiations of (diverse) past(s) and memories and, consequently, related belonging(s) to so-called ‘remembrance communities’ take place in historical-political adult education. The article explores the relationship between existing historical knowledge about the Holocaust and National socialist past, discursive practices of representation in remembering pasts, and the negotiation of belonging in historical-political adult education. Using the example of a German orientation course, the contribution indicates that (1) remembering is subject to specific social power relations; (2) that teachers and learners navigate in discursive exchange about histories between the (re-)production of national (state) structuring and the attempt to make diversity visible in historical references; (3) that language skills are central for participating in the production of remembrance; (4) that different stakeholders face diverse challenges in teaching and providing historical-political education for adult migrants. The article addresses a relevant and urgent issue in adult education in migration societies. It, therefore, contributes to providing initial insights into teaching and learning opportunities and challenges that arise in courses about the Holocaust and National socialism in migration societies.

Co-designing a theory-informed, multicomponent intervention to increase vaccine uptake with Congolese migrants: A qualitative, community-based participatory research study (LISOLO MALAMU).

Disparities in the uptake of routine and COVID-19 vaccinations have been observed in migrant populations, and attributed to issues of mistrust, accessand low vaccine confidence. Participatory research approaches and behaviour change theory hold the potential for developing tailored vaccination interventions that address these complex barriers in partnership with communities and should be explored further. This study used a theory-informed, community-based participatory research approach to co-design a culturally tailored behaviour change intervention aimed at increasing COVID-19 vaccine uptake among Congolese migrants in London, United Kingdom (2021-2022). It was designed and led by a community-academic partnership in response to unmet needs in the Congolese community as the COVID-19 pandemic started. Barriers and facilitators to COVID-19 vaccination, information and communication preferences, and intervention suggestions were explored through qualitative in-depth interviews with Congolese migrants, thematically analysed, and mapped to the theoretical domains framework (TDF) and the capability, opportunity, motivation, behaviourmodel to identify target behaviours and strategies to include in interventions. Interventions were co-designed and tailored in workshops involving Congolese migrants. Thirty-two Congolese adult migrants (24 (75%) women, mean 14.3 (SD:7.5)years in theUnited Kingdom, mean age 52.6 (SD: 11.0) years) took part in in-depth interviews and 16 (same sample) took part in co-design workshops. Fourteen barriers and 10 facilitators to COVID-19 vaccination were identified; most barrier data related to four TDF domains (beliefs about consequences; emotion; social influences and environmental context and resources), and the behavioural diagnosis concluded interventions should target improving psychological capability, reflective and automatic motivationsand social opportunities. Strategies included culturally tailored behaviour change techniques based on education, persuasion, modelling, enablementand environmental restructuring, which resulted in a co-designed intervention comprising community-led workshops, plays and posters. Findings and interventions were disseminated through a community celebration event. Our study demonstrates how behavioural theory can be applied to co-designing tailored interventions with underserved migrant communities through a participatory research paradigm to address a range of health issues and inequalities. Future research should build on this empowering approach, with the goal of developing more sensitive vaccination services and interventions which respond to migrant communities' unique cultural needs and realities. Patient and public involvement (PPI) were embedded in the participatory study design and approach, with community members co-producing all stages of the study and co-authoring this paper. An independent PPI board (St George's Migrant Health Research Group Patient and Public Involvement Advisory Board) comprising five adult migrants with lived experience of accessing healthcare in the United Kingdom were also consulted at significant points over the course of the study.

Teachers’ approaches to social inclusion in second language teaching for adult migrants

Adult education has been used as a means to enhance citizens' opportunities to participate and be included in society, but adult education may also construe students as excluded. This study focuses on how teachers in second language education for migrants conceptualise and enact teaching for social inclusion. It draws on Fraser's concept of social justice and Biesta’s aims of sound education. The article is based on observations and interviews with teachers. The findings highlight that the teaching is enacted to develop the students’ language skills for formal qualification and everyday life as well as their knowledge of Civics and norms in Swedish society. Thus, conceptualising the students as emerging participants, lacking skills and knowledge as language users and citizens. This teaching enactment reflects qualification and socialisation as central aims of education, but less of subjectification processes. Consequently, social inclusion is conceptualised as migrants adjusting to society in predefined ways.

Multiliteracies and multilingualism in adult migrants

The communication paradigm has been restructured by globalisation and digitalisation, affecting the way we learn and adjusting language and literacy education. As adult migrants in urban contexts become socialised in learning environments with higher cultural complexity, a dynamic and flexible multiliterate and multilingual learning environment is needed in host countries to meet different needs. Of particular interest to the implementation of multimodal literacies is the consideration of recent advances in multilingualism proposed by the London Group mandate, which merges multilingualism and literacy. The aim of this study was to empirically investigate the interrelation of multiliteracy and multilingualism by conducting a systematic review that would shed light on how to grant ideological and implementational programmes for multilingual language education policy and practice in multiliteracy contexts. The study followed the PRISMA protocol to answer three research questions: RQ1: Has previous research incorporated multilingualism / plurilingualism into multiliteracy models for studies with adult migrants? RQ2: What research methods have been used for studies with adult migrants? RQ3: What is the quality of the research methods? Our results show that multilingualism is embedded in the various models of multiliteracy. However, the epistemological tradition in the field of multilingualism does not seem to have had a significant impact on the implementation of new educational programmes that meet the needs of adult migrants. We also found that quantitative research has rarely been used, and that there is a need to raise quality standards of research in this sub-discipline by reducing bias in the processes of designing, conducting and reporting research.

COVID-19 among undocumented migrants admitted to French intensive care units during the 2020–2021 period: a retrospective nationwide study

BackgroundBefore the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in France, undocumented migrants had a higher risk than general population for being admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) because of acute respiratory failure or severe infection. Specific data concerning the impact of COVID-19 on undocumented migrants in France are lacking. We aimed to analyze the mortality and respiratory severity of COVID-19 in this specific population.We retrospectively included all undocumented adult migrants admitted in French ICUs from March 2020 through April 2021 using the French nationwide hospital information system (Programme de Médicalisation des Systèmes d’Information). We focused on admissions related to COVID-19. Undocumented migrants were compared to the general population, first in crude analysis, then after matching on age, severity and main comorbidities. The primary outcome was the ICU mortality from COVID-19. Secondary objectives were the incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), the need for mechanical ventilation (MV), the duration of MV, ICU and hospital stay.ResultsDuring the study period, the rate of ICU admission among patients hospitalized for COVID-19 was higher for undocumented migrants than for general population (463/1627 (28.5%) vs. 81 813/344 001 (23.8%); p < 0.001). Although ICU mortality was comparable after matching (14.3% for general population vs. 13.3% for undocumented migrants; p = 0.50), the incidence of ARDS was higher among undocumented migrants (odds ratio, confidence interval (OR (CI)) 1.25 (1.06–1.48); p = 0.01). Undocumented migrants needed more frequently invasive MV (OR (CI) 1.2 (1.01–1.42); p = 0.04 than general population. There were no differences between groups concerning duration of MV, ICU and hospital length of stay.ConclusionDuring the first waves of COVID-19 in France, undocumented migrants had a mortality similar to the general population but a higher risk for ICU admission and for developing an ARDS. These results highlight the need for reinforcing prevention and improving primary healthcare access for people in irregular situation.

Migration and risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A Swedish national study.

Prior studies report increased risk of schizophrenia (SCZ) in migrants relative to the native-born population; however, few have investigated bipolar disorder (BD) and migrant characteristics which may influence risk. We aimed to examine the risk of SCZ and BD in migrants and their children relative to those of Swedish ancestry, and whether risk varied by age at migration, region of origin, sex, and parental migrant status. We conducted a nested case-control study using 5539 SCZ cases and 20,577 BD cases diagnosed 1988-2013, individually matched to five population-based controls by birth year and sex. Conditional logistic regression was used to evaluate the risk of SCZ and BD by migrant status, region of origin and age at migration, with models stratified by sex. First-generation migrants had increased risk of SCZ and decreased risk of BD. There was a distinct pattern of risk for SCZ by age at migration. Childhood migrants from all regions had increased risk of SCZ, particularly those from Africa. In contrast, risk for BD declined with age at migration, with increased risk only in Nordic child migrants. SCZ and BD diagnoses were decreased in adult migrants, elevated in second-generation migrants (with risk differing by number of migrant parents and greater for those with migrant fathers) and higher in male migrants (vs. female). Age at migration, sex, and region of origin affect risk of SCZ and BD. Further research is required to determine how migration-related factors influence disease etiology and the receipt of these diagnoses.

Adult Migrants’ Endeavours for a Life as Included

In many European countries, Sweden included, social inclusion of adult migrants has come to mean second language learning and labour market establishment. This understanding of social inclusion has been problematised by previous research as it reinforces a deficit discourse where migrants are depicted as lacking skills or incentives, and social inclusion is seen merely as a matter of adjusting to society. This study aims to examine migrants’ positioning in relation to language learning and social inclusion. It is based on a longitudinal interview study with adult migrants, first when being enrolled in second language education, and later in the continuing process of making a life in a new country. We analyse five migrant narratives, drawing on the concepts of positioning, agency, rights, duties, and capital in relation to their past, present, and future aspirations. The results show that the position of the “good migrant” taking responsibility for language learning and job seeking is prominent. At the same time, positioning is also constructed in relation to individual aspirations and opportunities, depending on one’s circumstance of life and capital, such as previous education or social networks. Thus, inclusion is closely related to being recognised, not primarily as a migrant, but as the person one strives to be, both professionally and personally.

Investigating the efficacy of the AMEP Digital Literacies Framework and Guide for adult EAL settings

AbstractThe importance of digital literacies for adult language learners from migrant and refugee backgrounds has been widely recognized. However, there is relatively limited conceptual and practical guidance for practitioners. To address this concern, we developed a pedagogical framework and a practical guide for teachers in the Adult Migrant English Program in Australia. The conceptual framework brought together four well‐established bodies of scholarly work and formed the four principles for teaching digital literacies: (1) authentic learning contexts, (2) problem‐based learning, (2) strengths‐based approaches, and (4) multidimensional practices. To unpack the framework for practical use, we then developed a guide, which reflected these principles and offered teaching ideas. This paper describes the conceptualization of the pedagogical framework and reports on a multiple case study which sought to gain insight from five English as an Additional Language (EAL) teachers on the efficacy of the framework and guide. The findings suggest that while there was a reasonable level of understanding of the framework and guide and many rich learning experiences were created , in practice some teachers experienced challenges in actuating some principles of the framework. The article concludes with implications for teachers' self‐directed learning with the help of this resource and future research.

“Small Tragedies of Individuals’ Lives”: London’s Migrant Division of Labour and Migrant Language Educational Settings

This article highlights the lived experience of migrants who have come to London to set up a new life and are learning English to facilitate this process. Drawing on my ethnographic research with a heterogenous group of adult migrants within and beyond the institutional boundaries of a migrant language educational setting in London, I tease out the often painful experiences and effects of deskilling my participants are confronted with as they are trying to make their lives in the city. Language proficiency is commonly seen as a key factor that accounts for migrants’ disparities regarding their labour market participation and linguistic competence often acts as a crucial gatekeeping mechanism to social inclusion, which is additionally impeded by wider structural constraints. In this context, my research highlights the ways in which my interlocutors find themselves caught up in entrenched forms of intersecting inequalities, unequal power relations, and the dynamics and conditions of London’s migrant division of labour. I shed light on how my participants deal with and navigate these complex processes whilst questing for the “right” linguistic competence to somehow propel their lives forward despite being aware that this might not necessarily come to fruition. I draw particular attention to the emotional cost of deskilling and being bumped down and show how this not only leaves an imprint on migrants themselves but also on those who are teaching them in order to increase migrants’ employability and social mobility.

Capturing Thresholds and Continuities: Individual Differences as Predictors of L2 Sociolinguistic Repertoires in Adult Migrant Learners in Austria

Abstract This cross-sectional study addresses for the first time the non/linear association between individual learner differences of social, proficiency-related, and socioaffective nature (length of residence [LoR], varietal proficiency, exposure, and socioaffect) and differential outcomes in L2 sociolinguistic repertoires against the backdrop of the Austro-Bavarian naturalistic context. Forty adult migrant L2 German learners participated in a virtual reality experiment involving interactions with dialect-speaking and standard German-speaking interlocutors. The goal was to explore differences in participants’ interpersonal varietal behavior, that is, their addressee-relational variable use of standard German, Austro-Bavarian dialect, and mixture varieties. The results of Bayesian multinomial modeling indicated that LoR, dialect exposure, and proficiency, as well as reduced anxiety when speaking dialect, predicted differences in interpersonal varietal behavior. That said, a visual-quantitative analysis revealed critical thresholds concerning when, within these predictors, changes in sociolinguistic behavior manifested, indicating a rapid change in sociolinguistic development at the inter-individual level and ultimately facilitating initial insights as to how advanced one needs to be in order to engage in sociolinguistic variation in the Austro-Bavarian naturalistic context.