Adirondack Park Research Articles

An evaluation of cyanobacterial occurrence and bloom development in Adirondack lakes

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs) have occurred in many low nutrient (oligotrophic) lakes in the northeastern United States. The Adirondack Park in New York is a large, mountainous region with many low nutrient lakes. There is a gap in understanding regarding whether cyanoHAB reporting data are truly reflective of the susceptibility of lakes to develop bloom conditions. We evaluated lakes with and without documented cyanoHABs for cyanotoxin synthetase gene quantification, phytoplankton community composition, and akinete abundance to identify conditions associated with the observation of cyanoHABs. We analyzed (1) contributions of cyanobacteria to the overall phytoplankton community, (2) differences in cyanobacterial communities and the presence of cyanotoxin synthetase genes, and (3) lake physical and geomorphological attributes as drivers of differences in cyanobacteria occurrence. Two sample types (water and sediment) were collected from 2 sample locations (nearshore and open water) in 5 lakes in 2021. We found cyanobacteria in all lakes and sample locations. Phytoplankton biovolume and cyanotoxin synthetase genes differed among lakes and by cyanoHAB history. Samples from lakes with documented blooms were associated with marginally higher total phosphorus. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling was used to identify which environmental factors influenced community structure. Our study demonstrates the importance of multifaceted approaches to detect cyanobacteria that may only be apparent during ephemeral bloom events and the similarities among lakes with and without a history of bloom reports. This work contributes to a better understanding of cyanoHAB occurrence in Adirondack lakes, and of conditions that may cause low nutrient lakes to be susceptible to cyanoHABs.

Legacy effects of Phragmites australis and herbicide treatments can reduce survival but do not prevent native plant establishment

Introduced Phragmites australis represents a widespread threat to North American wetlands. Management agencies invest millions of dollars annually to manage the species, mostly by applying herbicides, to mitigate and prevent negative impacts. The often temporary reduction of P. australis rarely increases native diversity, and long‐term legacy effects of P. australis and repeat herbicide treatments are unknown. We used a coordinated management program targeting mostly small P. australis populations in the Adirondack Park in New York State, United States, to assess the potential for such legacy effects. We planted individuals of three native species as sentinels into treated and untreated, uninvaded reference wetlands after unassisted succession had occurred in treatment areas. Sentinel plants survived and grew in treated areas, suggesting legacy of P. australis and its management did not permanently limit establishment of native plants. However, responses were variable among sentinel species, with negative or neutral impacts on survival rates and neutral or positive effects on growth. Species‐specific responses and large variation in survival rates between sites and sentinels indicate that site factors are a dominant influence on survival and growth. Importantly, as treatment frequency increased, survival of one sentinel species decreased significantly, indicating a potential for long‐term negative impacts of repeated herbicide applications. Additional replanting after P. australis treatment and initial unassisted plant succession may enable more diverse plant communities to return, including species not able to recruit from local seed banks or seed sources. However, it remains unclear if active transplanting will enable more long‐term suppression of P. australis.

Increasing diversity and biotic homogenization of lake plankton during recovery from acidification

Determining biodiversity responses to environmental change, such as acidification, is critical for ecosystem projections under future global change scenarios. Here, we analyzed three plankton communities of phytoplankton, crustaceans and rotifers in 28 lakes in the Adirondack Park, USA, during 1994–2012, and examined the spatiotemporal trends in their alpha and beta diversity during recovery from acidification. For all plankton assemblages, Shannon diversity increased towards recent years and high lake pH, and there was an increasing community dissimilarity with pH changes. The spatial mean Bray-Curtis dissimilarities across all lakes decreased over time for phytoplankton and rotifers leading to an increase in spatial homogenization. Such a homogenization cooccurred however with the overall increasing diversity in this region, which contrasts with the previous classic view that homogenization is mainly driven by loss of species and results in biodiversity loss. We further observed lower temporal mean beta diversity in low-pH lakes for crustaceans and rotifers, but not for phytoplankton. Generally, spatial and temporal mean beta diversity of the three taxonomic groups were primarily driven by lake-water ion variables, and rotifers were also constrained by nutrients and climate. Collectively, our results show how and why plankton community compositions vary over space along with acidification recovery, and further highlight the importance of spatiotemporal studies combined with long-term monitoring programs in assessing biodiversity change during the recovery of disturbed ecosystems.

Minimal Impact of a Long-Distance Hiking Trail on the Plant Community in the Adirondack Park, New York State, U.S.A.

Hiking trails provide the opportunity for people to access, experience, and appreciate natural areas, but they also pose the risk of damage by converting vegetated areas to trail, providing the opportunity for off-trail hiking, and increasing soil compaction. To assess the impact of hiking trails on the plant community of a northeastern forest ecosystem, trail width was measured, and understory vegetation was documented at the trail edge, 3 m from the trail, and 5 m from the trail every 4 km along the Northville–Placid Trail from Benson to Averyville Road in the Adirondack State Park of New York State in August 2018. Soil compaction, canopy cover, and the tree species in the canopy were documented, including from the trail itself. The mean trail width was 65.18 ± 6.06 cm. Within the 183.39 km of trail sampled, 119,533.60 ± 11,113.43 m2 of forest were replaced with trail. Soil compaction was greatest in the trail and significantly lower off the trail. None of the canopies of the tree species was more likely to occur away from the trail than adjacent to or directly above the trail. Canopy cover did not differ significantly among sample locations. Cover of understory species was not significantly different near to or away from the trail. Species richness in the understory was significantly higher adjacent to the trail than 5 m from the trail, but trail width, canopy openness above the trail, canopy openness adjacent to the trail, and soil compaction were not significantly related to species richness adjacent to the trail. Understory community composition was more similar among plots within a sample location than between plots 5 m from the trail at adjacent sample locations. Collectively, the plant community outside of the trail itself is not significantly affected by the presence of the trail. The major impact of the trail is the loss of the plant community at its margins as the trail width increases. Hikers should be further educated and encouraged to use trails in ways that minimize the width of the trail to protect the ecosystem, along with trail managers continuing to increase the sustainability of the trail design.

A model-based estimate of winter distribution and abundance of white-tailed deer in the Adirondack Park.

In the Adirondack Park region of northern New York, USA, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and moose (Alces alces) co-occur along a temperate-boreal forest ecotone. In this region, moose exist as a small and vulnerable low-density population and over-browsing by white-tailed deer is known to reduce regeneration, sustainability, and health of forests. Here, we assess the distribution and abundance of white-tailed deer at a broad spatial scale relevant for deer and moose management in northern New York. We used density surface modeling (DSM) under a conventional distance sampling framework, tied to a winter aerial survey, to create a spatially explicit estimate of white-tailed deer abundance and density across a vast, northern forest region. We estimated 16,352 white-tailed deer (95% CI 11,762–22,734) throughout the Adirondack Park with local density ranging between 0.00–5.73 deer/km2. Most of the Adirondack Park (91.2%) supported white-tailed deer densities of ≤2 individuals/km2. White-tailed deer density increased with increasing proximity to anthropogenic land cover such as timber cuts, roads, and agriculture and decreased in areas with increasing elevation and days with snow cover. We conclude that climate change will be more favorable for white-tailed deer than for moose because milder winters and increased growing seasons will likely have a pronounced influence on deer abundance and distribution across the Adirondack Park. Therefore, identifying specific environmental conditions facilitating the expansion of white-tailed deer into areas with low-density moose populations can assist managers in anticipating potential changes in ungulate distribution and abundance and to develop appropriate management actions to mitigate negative consequences such as disease spread and increased competition for limiting resources.

Decision tree-based machine learning models for above-ground biomass estimation using multi-source remote sensing data and object-based image analysis

Forest above-ground biomass (AGB) estimation provides valuable information about the carbon cycle. Thus, the overall goal of this paper is to present an approach to enhance the accuracy of the AGB estimation. The main objectives are to: 1) investigate the performance of remote sensing data sources, including airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR), optical, SAR, and their combination to improve the AGB predictions, 2) examine the capability of tree-based machine learning models, and 3) compare the performance of pixel-based and object-based image analysis (OBIA). To investigate the performance of machine learning models, multiple tree-based algorithms were fitted to predictors derived from airborne LiDAR data, Landsat, Sentinel-2, Sentinel-1, and PALSAR-2/PALSAR SAR data collected within New York’s Adirondack Park. Combining remote sensing data from multiple sources improved the model accuracy (RMSE: 52.14 Mg ha−1 and R2: 0.49). There was no significant difference among gradient boosting machine (GBM), random forest (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) models. In addition, pixel-based and object-based models were compared using the airborne LiDAR-derived AGB raster as a training/testing sample. The OBIA provided the best results with the RMSE of 33.77 Mg ha−1 and R2 of 0.81 for the combination of optical and SAR data in the GBM model.

Challenges and opportunities for estimating abundance of a low‐density moose population

AbstractMonitoring large herbivores across their core range has been readily accomplished using aerial surveys and traditional distance sampling. But for peripheral populations, where individuals may occur in patchy, low‐density populations, precise estimation of population size and trend remains logistically and statistically challenging. For moose (Alces alces) along their southern range margin in northern New York, USA, we sought robust estimates of moose distribution, abundance, and population trend (2016–2019) using a combination of aerial surveys (line transect distance‐sampling), repeated surveys in areas where moose were known to occur to boost the number of detections, and density surface modeling (DSM) with spatial covariates. We achieved a precise estimate of density (95% CI = 0.00–0.29 moose/km2) for this small population (656 moose, 95% CI = 501–859), which was patchily distributed across a large and heavily forested region (the 24,280‐km2Adirondack Park). Local moose abundance was positively related to active timber management, elevation, and snow cover, and negatively related to large bodies of water. As expected, moose abundance in this peripheral population was low relative to its core range in other northern forest states. Yet, in areas where abundance was greatest, moose densities in New York approached those where epizootics of winter tick (Dermacentor albipictus) have been reported, underscoring the need for effective and efficient monitoring. By incorporating autocorrelation in observations and landscape covariates, DSM provided spatially explicit estimates of moose density with greater precision and no additional field effort over traditional distance sampling. Combined with repeated surveys of areas with known moose occurrence to achieve viable sample sizes, DSM is a useful tool for effectively monitoring low density and patchy populations.

Mapping the purple menace: spatiotemporal distribution of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) along roadsides in northern New York State

Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) is an invasive, herbaceous plant, frequently found in wetlands, creating monoculture stands, resulting in intensive management strategies in central New York, Ontario, and Quebec. The goal of this study was to identify the extent of infestations and to investigate factors that promote the spread of purple loosestrife. We attempted to answer several questions regarding level of infestation, connection to mowing, and influence of culverts. During flowering season in July and August, 2017–2019, we mapped infestations along 150 km (93 miles) of state highway between the Adirondack Park and the St. Lawrence River using the ESRI Collector app. The results of our preliminary analysis revealed significant increase in the number of plants (P < 0.001). In addition, a linear correlation analysis demonstrated a higher loosestrife density with an increase in plant species richness and a decrease in the distance to the closest infestation and wetland (P < 0.001 each). We found no statistical evidence that mowing promotes the spread of loosestrife. As expected, there were more individual infestations in highway ditches, but larger and denser infestations in wetlands (P = 0.003 in 2019). Culverts enable purple loosestrife to spread underneath highways and should be managed to prevent spread.

Property rights play a pivotal role in the distribution of ecosystem services among beneficiaries

ABSTRACT Property rights are fundamental institutions that set the rules for who is allowed to use, manage, and control natural resources. Though the literature on property rights over natural resources is well developed. However, our understanding of the ways by which property rights govern actors’ ability to obtain ecosystem services provided by these natural resources remains under-explored. Using the Adirondack Park, USA, as a case study, we develop a framework that pairs property rights theory with spatial analysis to show who can obtain ecosystem services across this landscape. We look at rights over three ecosystem services: timber, drinking water and recreational fishing. We show that property rights combined with ecosystem service flow affect who can receive ecosystem services, and where, across the landscape. Our results demonstrate that property rights can play a pivotal role in who can obtain ecosystem services across landscapes. However, more work is required to model the supply and flow of ecosystems services, and to connect these to property rights to fully capture the interactions occurring between property rights and ecosystem services, and how they influence who can obtain these services. This paper contributes to the literature by showing how property rights influence who the potential beneficiaries of ecosystem services are under different property rights regimes.

Managing Moose from Home: Determining Landscape Carrying Capacity for Alces alces Using Remote Sensing

In temperate forests of the northeastern U.S., moose (Alces alces) populations are adapted for mixed-age heterogeneous landscapes that provide abundant herbaceous forage in warm months and coniferous forage during winter. Heterogeneity of forest stands is driven by management activities or natural disturbance, resulting in a multi-age forest at a landscape scale. Here, we present a method to estimate landscape carrying capacity of moose by combining remote sensing classification of forest cover class with literature or field-based estimates of class-specific forage abundance. We used Landsat imagery from 1991 to 2013 for the Allegheny National Forest and 2013–2018 for the Adirondack Park, and associated training polygons, to predict based on NDVI and SWI whether a forested landscape fit into one of three cover classes: mature forest, intermediate timber removal, or overstory timber removal. Our three-classes yielded a mean land cover prediction accuracy of 94.3% (Khat = 0.91) and 86.9% (Khat = 0.76) for ANFR and AP, respectively. In the AP, we applied previously calculated summer crude protein values to our predicted cover types, resulting in an estimated average carrying capacity of 760 moose (SD ± 428) across all sampling years, similar in magnitude to a density estimate of 716 moose (95% CI = 566–906) calculated during the same time. Our approach was able to accurately identify forest timber treatments across landscapes at differing spatial and temporal scales and provide an alternative method to estimate landscape-level ungulate carrying capacity. The ability to accurately identify areas of potential conflict from overbrowsing, or to highlight areas in need of land cover treatments can increase the toolset for ungulate management in managed forest landscapes.

Regional target loads of atmospheric nitrogen and sulfur deposition for the protection of stream and watershed soil resources of the Adirondack Mountains, USA

Acidic deposition contributes to a range of environmental impacts across forested landscapes, including acidification of soil and drainage water, toxic aluminum mobilization, depletion of available soil nutrient cations, and impacts to forest and aquatic species health and biodiversity. In response to decreasing levels of acidic deposition, soils and drainage waters in some regions of North America have become gradually less acidic. Thresholds of atmospheric deposition at which adverse ecological effects are manifested are called critical loads (CLs) and/or target loads (TLs). Target loads are developed based on approaches that account for spatial and temporal aspects of acidification and recovery. Exceedance represents the extent to which current or projected future levels of acidic deposition exceed the level expected to cause ecological harm. We report TLs of sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) deposition and the potential for ecosystem recovery of watershed soils and streams in the Adirondack region of New York State, resources that have been less thoroughly investigated than lakes. Regional TLs were calculated by statistical extrapolation of hindcast and forecast simulations of 25 watersheds using the process-based model PnET-BGC coupled with empirical observations of stream hydrology and established sensitivity of sugar maple (Acer saccharum) to soil base saturation and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) to stream acid neutralizing capacity (ANC). Historical impacts and the expected recovery timeline of regional soil and stream chemistry and fish community condition within the Adirondack Park were evaluated. Analysis suggests that many low-order Adirondack streams and associated watershed soils have low TLs (<40 meq/m2/yr of N + S deposition) to achieve specified benchmarks for recovery of soil base saturation or stream ANC. Acid-sensitive headwater and low-order streams and watershed soils in the region are expected to experience continued adverse effects from N and S deposition well into the future even under aggressive emissions reductions. Watershed soils and streams in the western Adirondack Park are particularly vulnerable to acidic deposition and currently in exceedance of TLs. The methods used for linking statistical and process-based models to consider chemical and biological response under varying flow conditions at the regional scale in this study can be applied to other areas of concern.

Exurbia East and West: Responses of Bird Communities to Low Density Residential Development in Two North American Regions

Exurban development is a prevalent cause of habitat loss and alteration throughout the globe and is a common land-use pattern in areas of high natural amenity value. We investigated the response of bird communities to exurban development in two contrasting North American regions, the Adirondack Park (New York) in the eastern US, and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Montana) in the Rocky Mountain West. We combined social and ecological data collection methods to compare the effects of exurban development on avian communities between the two landscapes, and, in exurban residential areas within them, to compare the relative roles of habitat structure, resource provisioning, and human disturbance in influencing avian habitat use. Contrasting with an earlier pilot study, we found differential effects of exurban development in the two regions, with birds generally more responsive in the Adirondack Park. Characteristics of habitat context and structure had larger influences on bird habitat use than human-associated resource provisioning or disturbance in both landscapes. The smaller magnitude and high variability in the responses of birds to landowner stewardship and/or disturbance suggest that broader geographical factors are highly important and that careful siting of developments on the landscape may be more successful at protecting wildlife communities than attempts to influence the behaviors of their inhabitants once built.

Managing Recreation in New York's Adirondack Park: A Case Study of Public Perceptions and Preferences for Reducing User Impacts to the High Peaks Wilderness Complex

This qualitative case study research investigated public perceptions and preferences regarding management options for addressing recreational impacts to the High Peaks Wilderness Complex (HPWC) in New York State’s six-million-acre Adirondack Park. The Park is the largest in the contiguous United States, attracting local and international visitors from Philadelphia, Montreal, Boston, and New York City, major cities within 350 miles of the HPWC. The Park saw 12.4 million visitors in 2018, resulting in crowding, trail erosion, clandestine trails/campsites, water pollution, and plant/wildlife impacts. Data was gathered from 1,200 individuals via an online questionnaire, semi-structured interviews with NGOs, community influentials, and agency representatives, and participant observation. Findings showed the public strongly supported passive management options such as increased funding for education, trail reconstruction, enhanced management of the HPWC, and the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) promotion of alternatives to the most popular wilderness trails during busy months. The public was split in their support of direct management techniques such as temporary trail closures, limiting the number of hikers, and mandatory permits for hikers/parking. NGOs expressed a diversity of preferences for direct wilderness management, but widely supported enhanced education, trail improvements, and funding increases for management and the hiring of more rangers. The results of this research provide insights for improving management practices that facilitate sustainable recreation while also protecting and restoring federal and state designated wilderness. This manuscript culminates in a suite of management implications based on our research findings, including filling all vacancies within the Adirondack Park Agency Board with professionally and culturally diverse individuals, including women, Tribal representatives, minority communities, environmental attorneys, natural scientists, and regional planners. Funding should be allocated for the hiring of additional rangers, Summit Stewards, and trail crews, for enhanced trail maintenance and hiker education efforts. We also recommend implementing the Wildland Monitoring Program in order to better understand trail carrying capacity and ecological limits. Limiting the number of hikers/vehicles through a permit system is but one solution if efforts to heighten ranger presence, education, and improve trails all fail to address resource degradation.

Battles of the North Country: Wilderness Politics and Recreational Development in the Adirondack State Park, 1920–1980 by Jonathan D. Anzalone

Reviewed by: Battles of the North Country: Wilderness Politics and Recreational Development in the Adirondack State Park, 1920–1980 by Jonathan D. Anzalone Clarence Jefferson Hall Jr. (bio) Battles of the North Country: Wilderness Politics and Recreational Development in the Adirondack State Park, 1920–1980 By Jonathan D. Anzalone. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2018. 292 pages, 8 halftones, 2 maps, 6" x 9". $92.68 cloth, $32.95 paper, $32.95 ebook. Preparations for the 1980 Olympics in Lake Placid included excruciating debates surrounding the potential environmental risks and economic rewards of hosting the Winter Games a second time. When questioned by a reporter about his views on the subject, one village resident responded, "I would like to see the environment stay as it is, but I would rather see food for my family on the table" (179). This seemingly passing comment underscored a point of tension that conditioned the planning and construction of recreational facilities in and near New York's "Forever Wild" Forest Preserve in the Adirondack State Park for much of the twentieth century. However, as Jonathan Anzalone has uncovered in his terrific book, more often than not, environmental regulators, businesspeople, year-round residents, second-home owners, and tourists agreed that economic development and environmental protection were not mutually exclusive. Rather, as Anzalone demonstrates, nearly everyone with a stake in the future of the Adirondack Park between 1920 and 1980 considered the building of modern recreational infrastructure to be a key component of environmental conservation in New York's North Country. As such, Jonathan Anzalone has extended the timeline of conservation history past its traditional Progressive Era boundaries to encompass wide-ranging developments in the twentieth century that would have baffled people like John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt. Battles of the North Country analyzes how New York State reconciled the construction of modern recreational infrastructure on public lands in the Adirondack Park with the legal protections afforded the Forest Preserve under Article XIV (the "Forever Wild" provision) of the state constitution. In richly detailed accounts of seven major building projects—athletic facilities for the 1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, state [End Page 406] campground modernization, the highway and ski centers at Whiteface Mountain, the Adirondack Northway (Interstate 87), and planned second-home developments—Anzalone shows how state leaders' utilitarian interpretation of "Forever Wild" permitted revolutionary transformations seemingly at odds with the strictures enshrined in Article XIV. Eager to accommodate restless urban populations yearning for time in the great outdoors, conservation leaders argued that as the property of all New Yorkers, the Forest Preserve had to be made useful. Anzalone writes, "Building campsites, mountain roads, and other recreational facilities, [conservation officials] believed, promoted healthful exercise, economic growth, and rational use of resources" (5). But how did the state construct roads, ski lifts, restrooms, freshwater systems, and other modern infrastructure inside the Forest Preserve without violating the constitution? Anzalone reveals how state lawmakers and voters repeatedly obliged conservation leaders' requests to amend the constitution and override—some might say undermine—Article XIV. Sometimes, however, conservation officials skirted both the constitution and established legal frameworks to achieve their recreational objectives. Analyzing preparations at Whiteface Mountain for the downhill skiing competition at the 1980 Olympics, Anzalone writes, "The DEC [Department of Environmental Conservation] … angered conservationists when it widened ski trails on Whiteface to two hundred feet … even though the state constitution limited trail width to eighty feet" (197). With both the vitality of a growing state population and the economic survival of a rapidly deindustrializing North Country on the line, "Forever Wild" could never mean "Forever." By demonstrating the significant role public officials—as opposed to private developers—played in modernizing lands many assumed off limits to construction, Anzalone challenges readers to reconsider American conservation as less an experiment in environmental protection and more an exercise in state-sponsored economic development. Exhaustively researched and drawing on a deep evidentiary base, including government reports, personal correspondence, interviews, and local and national periodicals, Battles of the North Country situates outdoor recreation as a component whose importance to the history of conservation ranks equally with efforts to regulate extractive industries and wildlife populations. Its accessible, often entertaining prose...

Geographically Weighted Regression to Explore Spatially Varying Relationships of Recreation Resource Impacts: A Case Study from Adirondack Park, New York, USA

Empirical studies based on spatial explorations have played a critical role in understanding dynamics of recreation resource impact and recovery at multiple scales. However, little research has been done to examine spatially varying relationships between resource conditions and associated geospatial variables, especially using a predictive modeling approach. The primary purpose of this study was to explore spatially varying relationships of recreation resource impacts by using a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. Specifically, the study was designed to compare the GWR with an ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple linear regression model to better understand localized spatial variations with roadside campsite conditions in Adirondack Park, NY, USA. Geospatial variables contained in the OLS model explained approximately 22% of the variance in campsite conditions (adjusted R2 = 0.220, p &lt; 0.001). Statistically significant predictors of the campsite condition at the global scale included site circumference, distance from water resource, distance from major road, distance from hosting forest road, and slope. Non-significant variables included site designation, distance from recreational trail, and elevation. The subsequent analysis using the GWR model resulted in adjusted R2 values ranging from 0.198 to 0.271 (mean = 0.221). Roadside campsites located in the northern region of the park exhibited relatively higher R2 values, and roadside campsites located in the southern region exhibited relatively lower R2 values. All of the statistically significant global variables showed spatially varying relationships with the campsite condition. Additionally, elevation and site designation factors in the GWR model, which were non-significant variables at the global scale, suggested localized spatial variations with the campsite condition. Overall, the GWR model provided a more robust examination of campsite condition by accounting for localized spatial variations and by improving the model performance. This paper provides a discussion of the methodological and resource management implications of these findings.

Sustainable Trail Design, Not Hiker Permits, is Necessary for Environmental Preservation in New York State’s Adirondack Park High Peaks

The High Peaks of the Adirondack Park in New York is home to many of the state’s precious natural resources and is a favorite destination for hikers. Severe erosion on trails threatens the region’s environmental health. Most conservation groups advocate for reducing the number of hikers as the primary solution to combatting erosion; however, the scientific literature indicates that reduction of foot traffic is ineffective at combatting already deteriorating trails. Instead, we recommend the state legislature and Department of Environmental Conservation pursue a plan to rebuild these trails using sustainable design principles, which more effectively ensures their longevity. We outline the research and expertise required to successfully rebuild these trails as well as a mechanism to fund this expensive endeavor.

Genetic Characterization of the Giant Liver Fluke, Fascioloides magna (Platyhelminthes: Fasciolidae) From the Adirondack Region of Northern New York

The giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, is an important parasite of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus), a commercially important game species in the northeastern United States. However, the parasite has never been genetically characterized from this region and so its genetic interrelationships with other enzootic populations on the continent are unknown. The purpose of this study was to genetically characterize F. magna from the Adirondack region of northern New York (NNY) and determine its relationship with its enzootic cohorts. Flukes were extracted from seven livers of O. virginanus at three localities in and around the Adirondack Park in northern New York. DNA was extracted from eight individuals using standard procedures, and a 440-bp fragment of the COI gene was amplified using species-specific primers. F. magna sequences generated from a previous phylogeographic study were obtained from the GenBank database and a mtDNA dataset was compiled, aligned, and edited for molecular analyses. Analyses based on eight mtDNA sequences included haplotype network reconstruction, along with hierarchical and pairwise (ФST) AMOVA tests. F. magna from the Adirondacks was found to be most genetically similar to specimens from Minnesota based on shared haplotypes and relatively low genetic differentiation (ФST = 0.331). East coast enzootic populations exhibited panmixia while their west coast cohorts were genetically distinct. Based on the strong genetic similarities between F. magna from northern New York and Minnesota, we propose that the GLR enzootic range of F. magna be extended to encompass the Adirondack region of NNY.

The Canary in the Coal Mine: Testate Amoebae Record Anthropogenic Impacts in Sediments of Oligotrophic Lake George, NY, USA

ABSTRACT Lake George (NY) is surrounded by Forever Wild Forest in the Adirondack Park and has a Class AA Special water quality rating, yet lake monitoring has revealed increasing anthropogenic impacts from salt and nutrient loading over the past 30 years. To reconstruct anthropogenic influence on the lake (e.g., salt loading, eutrophication, climate warming), we characterized modern stable isotopes and testate amoeba and diatom assemblages in surface sediments from 33 lake-wide sites and compared their variability to 36 years of water-quality data. Linear regression analyses support testate amoebae as rapid responders and recorders of environmental change because taxa are strongly correlated with percent change of important water quality parameters. Our assessment indicates that: 1) Netzelia gramen is associated with aquatic plants and filamentous algae, making them a valuable aquatic plant/alga indicator, which is supported by the co-occurrence of the diatom Cocconeis spp.; 2) difflugids are generally good indicators of eutrophication, except for Difflugia protaeiformis; and 3) seasonal differences in water quality trends are reflected in the fossil record on decadal time scales. We show that testate amoebae are highly sensitive to small environmental changes in an oligotrophic lake and exhibit established relationships from eutrophic and mesotrophic lakes as well as new, likely oligotrophic-specific correlations. Correlation coefficients of water quality variables and strains within a species also illustrate gradational relationships, suggesting testate amoebae exhibit ecophenotypic plasticity. Diatom and testate amoeba assemblages categorize modern lakebed sites into four subgroups: 1) benthic macrophyte; 2) high nutrient; 3) high alkalinity; and 4) salt loading assemblages.

Mercury exposure in songbird communities along an elevational gradient on Whiteface Mountain, Adirondack Park (New York, USA).

Mercury (Hg) is a potent neurotoxin that biomagnifies within food webs. Adverse effects have been documented for avian species related to exposure of elevated Hg levels. High elevation, boreal forests generally receive higher atmospheric Hg deposition and regional studies have subsequently identified elevated blood Hg concentrations in songbird species inhabiting these montane habitats. The overall goal of this study was to investigate spatial and seasonal Hg exposure patterns in songbird species along an elevational gradient on Whiteface Mountain in the Adirondack Park of New York State. Songbird blood samples were collected from June-July in 2009 and 2010 along an elevational gradient at 13 study plots (450-1400 m) with a focus on Catharus thrushes, including the hermit thrush, Swainson's thrush, and Bicknell's thrush. The main results of this study documented: (1) an overall linear pattern of increasing blood Hg concentrations with increasing elevation, with additional analysis suggesting a nonlinear elevational pattern of increasing blood Hg concentrations to 1075 m, followed by decreasing concentrations thereafter, for all Catharus thrush species across the elevational gradient; and (2) an overall nonlinear seasonal pattern of increasing, followed by decreasing blood Hg concentrations across target species. Avian exposure patterns appear driven by elevated atmospheric Hg deposition and increased methylmercury bioavailability within high elevation habitats as compared with low elevation forests. Seasonal patterns are likely influenced by a combination of complex and dynamic variables related to dietary selection and annual molting cycles. Considering that few high elevation analyses have been conducted within the context of regional songbird research, this project complements the results from similar studies and highlights the need for further monitoring efforts to investigate environmental Hg contamination within avian communities.

Mercury exposure in songbird communities within Sphagnum bog and upland forest ecosystems in the Adirondack Park (New York, USA).

Mercury (Hg) is a potent neurotoxin that biomagnifies within both aquatic and terrestrial food webs resulting in adverse physiological and reproductive effects on impacted wildlife populations, including songbird communities. Due to reducing conditions, wetland ecosystems promote the formation of methylmercury. Regional studies have documented elevated blood mercury concentrations in songbird species within these habitat types. The overall goal of this research was to examine spatial and seasonal patterns of Hg exposure for targeted songbird species within Sphagnum bog wetland systems and compare these patterns with adjacent upland forests in the Adirondack Park of New York State. Project sampling was conducted at study plots within four Sphagnum bog and associated upland forest sites from May - August during the 2008, 2009, and 2011 field seasons. The overall results documented: (1) blood Hg concentrations were elevated in songbird species inhabiting Sphagnum bog habitats as compared to nearby upland forest species; (2) target species within each habitat type exhibited consistent species-level patterns in blood Hg concentrations at each study site; and (3) no seasonal change in blood Hg concentrations within Sphagnum bog habitats was documented, but an increasing, followed by a decreasing seasonal pattern in mercury exposure was detected for upland forest species. Habitat type was demonstrated to influence avian Hg exposure levels. Moreover, Sphagnum bog ecosystems may be contributing to elevated Hg concentrations in biota within the surrounding environment. Seasonal patterns for blood Hg concentrations were found to vary between habitat type and are likely related to a combination of variables including habitat-driven Hg concentrations in prey items, seasonal dietary shifts, and annual molting cycles. This project emphasizes the importance of prioritizing future research efforts within identified high Hg habitat types, specifically wetland systems, to better characterize associated avian exposure levels, estimate the spatial extent of wetland systems on the surrounding environment, and identify locations of potential biological hotspots across the Adirondack Park.