Adequate Daily Intake Research Articles

Variation in the essential fatty acids EPA and DHA in fillets of fish from the Great Lakes region

Abstract This dataset represents the largest collection of fatty acid data from the Great Lakes region to date, summarizing concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in fish sampled from the U.S. waters of all 5 Great Lakes and 92 U.S. lakes and rivers. Determining how freshwater fishes' fatty acid content varies across environmental gradients is important in understanding aquatic trophic interactions and to providing comprehensive fish consumption advice. However, there is currently a lack of information on variation in freshwater fish fatty acid content that may hinder human health and fisheries professionals tasked with establishing fish monitoring and analysis programs which capture this variability. To that end, fillet EPA + DHA concentrations were modeled over several biotic and abiotic gradients in order to constrain variability. Recommendations based on model results are then used to suggest starting points for planning future fish sampling efforts (e.g. inland walleye [EPA + DHA] varied with both length and waterbody eutrophication; these gradients should be incorporated into sampling efforts to capture walleye [EPA + DHA] variability). In terms of nutrition, Great Lakes species (all taxonomic families) and inland salmonid fillets contained a daily adequate intake (AI) level of ≥ 250 mg of EPA + DHA per 8-oz. (227 g) fillet, but other taxonomic families from inland waters generally did not. Very few species' fillets, regardless of sampling location or taxonomic family, contained the equivalent weekly AI level of 1750 mg EPA + DHA per 8-oz. fillet. The data presented here can inform both fish sampling efforts and fish consumption risk-benefit analyses.

Dietary Protein in Older Adults: Adequate Daily Intake but Potential for Improved Distribution.

Daily distribution of dietary protein may be important in protecting against sarcopenia, specifically in terms of per meal amounts relative to a proposed threshold for maximal response. The aims of this study were to determine total and per meal protein intake in older adults, as well as identifying associations with physical activity and sedentary behavior. Three-day food diaries recorded protein intake in 38 participants. Protein distribution, coefficient of variation (CV), and per meal amounts were calculated. Accelerometry was used to collect physical activity data as well as volume and patterns of sedentary time. Average intake was 1.14 g·kg−1·day−1. Distribution was uneven (CV = 0.67), and 79% of participants reported <0.4 g·kg−1 protein content in at least 2/3 daily meals. Protein intake was significantly correlated with step count (r = 0.439, p = 0.007) and negatively correlated with sedentary time (r = −0.456, p = 0.005) and Gini index G, which describes the pattern of accumulation of sedentary time (r = −0.421, p = 0.011). Total daily protein intake was sufficient; however, distribution did not align with the current literature; increasing protein intake may help to facilitate optimization of distribution. Associations between protein and other risk factors for sarcopenia may also inform protective strategies.

Increased Micronutrient Requirements during Physiologically Demanding Situations: Review of the Current Evidence

Every day, the human body is exposed to physical and psychological challenges that upset its internal equilibrium. Strenuous activities, daily defense against pathogens or the response to infection, seasonal changes, and recurring natural biological processes (e.g., the menstrual cycle) can all disturb homeostasis. The body brings its internal environment back into balance by the constant interaction of its many regulatory processes, allowing it to adapt to the ever-changing environment. This ability to adapt and respond (referred to as ‘phenotypic flexibility) is fundamental to maintaining good health. Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) have key roles in numerous homeostatic processes, enabling the body to produce enzymes, hormones and other substances that are essential for energy production, cell maintenance and repair, immune function and recovery from illness, blood formation, and maintenance of vital organs. Micronutrients are thus crucial to facilitate adequate responses to stressors that may challenge the body’s homeostasis. Micronutrients are generally not produced by the human body, necessitating an adequate daily intake at levels that have been recommended by various governing bodies. However, micronutrient requirements to optimally support homeostasis during daily demanding situations have not been clearly established. This review examines the roles of micronutrients during some of these demanding situations, to help determine whether there may be a rationale for increasing micronutrient intake during these periods to address any increased needs and potentially aid recovery.

Nutrient composition and consumer acceptability of bread made with orange sweet potato puree

The Sustainable Technology for Orange and Purple Sweetpotatoes (STOPS) project, led by researchers from Tuskegee University, USA, identified gaps in the value chain from production, processing, product development to consumption of sweet potato, aimed at addressing vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and improving the health and nutritional status of vulnerable populations in rural communities in Ghana. The orange sweet potato (OSP) could be an inexpensive, year-round, rich source of β‑carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. The anthocyanins that account for the purple pigmentation in the purple variety are powerful antioxidants with good bioavailability to be easily absorbed by the body. The STOPS project promotes the utilization of both varieties into value-added products from the root including flour, yogurt, and bread. Sweet potato-based bread, TUO vitabread, prepared from a composited wheat flour and OSP puree at a ratio of 2.5:1 (“as-is” basis) was compared with traditional wheat (white) bread on the Ghanaian market in compositional and sensory analyses. The proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat, ash and carbohydrate by difference) and energy content were not statistically different (P>.05), although TUO vitabread contains 18% more moisture than the white bread. The β-carotene and lutein concentrations in the OSP-based bread were approximately 6-fold higher (P=0.01). The TUO vitabread could meet 17% of the daily adequate intake of vitamin A for a 1- to 3-year-old child consuming about 50 g of the bread, but only 3% from the white bread. Consumer preference assessment of 50 undergraduate students showed a high preference for the OSP puree-based bread but further work on extension of shelf-life under ambient conditions is warranted. Thus, the inclusion of OSP in the traditional diet can be an inexpensive and year-round source of dietary β-carotene to complement the vitamin A supplementation programme to reduce VAD in children.

Nutritional status of patients with phenylketonuria in Japan

Accumulating evidence suggests that hyperphenylalaninemia in phenylketonuria (PKU) can cause neuropsychological and psychosocial problems in diet-off adult patients, and that such symptoms improve after resumption of phenylalanine-restricted diet, indicating the need for lifetime low-phenylalanine diet. While limiting protein intake, dietary therapy should provide adequate daily intake of energy, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, and microelements. We evaluated nutrient balance in 14 patients with classical PKU aged 4–38years. Approximately 80–85% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein in Japanese was supplied through phenylalanine-free (Phe-free) milk and Phe-free amino acid substitutes. Nutritional evaluation showed that the calorie and protein intakes were equivalent to the RDA. Phenylalanine intake was 9.8±2.2mg/kg of body weight/day, which maintained normal blood phenylalanine concentration by the 80% Phe-free protein rule. The protein, fat, and carbohydrate ratio was 9.5:23.9:66.6% with relative carbohydrate excess. Phe-free milk and amino acid substitutes provided 33.7% of carbohydrate, 82.1% of protein, and 66.7% of fat intake in all. Selenium and biotin intakes were 25.0% and 18.1% of the RDA and adequate intake (AI) for Japanese, respectively; both were not included in Phe-free milk. PKU patients showed low serum selenium, low urinary biotin, and high urinary 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid in this study. The intakes of magnesium, zinc, and iodine were low (71.5%, 79.5%, and 71.0% of the RDA, respectively) and that of phosphorus was 79.7% of the AI, although they were supplemented in Phe-free milk. PKU patients depend on Phe-free milk and substitutes for daily requirement of microelements and vitamins as well as protein and fat. Development of low-protein food makes it possible to achieve the aimed phenylalanine blood level, but this lowers the intake of microelements and vitamins from natural foods. The dietary habits vary continuously with age and environment in PKU patients. We recommend the addition of selenium and biotin to Phe-free milk in Japan and the need to review the composition of microelements and vitamins in A-1 and MP-11 preparations.

Kids’ meals from Canadian chain restaurants are exceedingly high in calories, fats, and sodium: a cross-sectional study

Due to the increased prevalence of eating outside-the-home, alongside high rates of childhood obesity, the objective of this study was to analyze the nutritional quality of kids’ meals (including main entrees with accompanying side dishes, desserts and beverages) from Canadian fast-food (FFR) and sit-down restaurant (SDR) chains. Data (serving size, calories, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, sodium and fibre) for 3,235 meals were obtained in 2010 from the websites of 7 SDRs and 10 FFRs of the 35 chains with more than 20 outlets in Canada and offering kids’ meals. T-tests were used to compare nutrient levels from SDR and FFR. On average, SDR meals had larger serving sizes compared to FFR meals (628 g vs. 562 g). As a result, SDR meals contained significantly higher amounts of calories (846 kcal vs. 737 kcal) and saturated fat (12 g vs. 8 g) (p < 0.0001). More than 50 % of kids’ meals from SDR and 35 % of meals from FFR exceeded 1,200 mg of sodium – the daily Adequate Intake for children aged 4-8 years. SDR meals had 41 % and 13 % of total calories coming from fat and saturated fat, while FFR had 37 % and 10 %, respectively. However, standardized comparisons of meals calculated per 100 g showed that FFR had significantly higher (p < 0.001) amounts of calories (244 vs 185 kcal/100 g) and sodium (538 vs 381 mg/100 g) compared to SDR. These results illustrate that addressing the poor nutritional quality of restaurant kids’ meals should be a major public health priority.

Calcium Intake, Major Dietary Sources and Bone Health Indicators in Iranian Primary School Children.

Background:Adequate calcium intake may have a crucial role with regards to prevention of many chronic diseases, including hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, different types of cancer, obesity and osteoporosis. In children, sufficient calcium intake is especially important to support the accelerated growth spurt during the preteen and teenage years and to increase bone mineral mass to lay the foundation for older age.Objectives:This study aimed to assess daily calcium intake in school-age children to ensure whether they fulfill the FGP dairy serving recommendations, the recommended levels of daily calcium intake and to assess the relationship between dietary calcium intake and major bone health indicators.Patients and Methods:A total of 501 Iranian school-age children were randomly selected. Calcium intake was assessed using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Bone health indicators were also assessed.Results:Dairy products contributed to 69.3% of the total calcium intake of the children. Daily adequate intake of calcium was achieved by 17.8% of children. Only 29.8% met the Food guide pyramid recommendations for dairy intake. Dietary calcium intake was not significantly correlated with serum calcium and other selected biochemical indicators of bone health.Conclusions:The need for planning appropriate nutrition strategies for overcoming inadequate calcium intake in school age children in the city of Tehran is inevitable.

Secondary hyperparathyroidism and its relationship with sarcopenia in elderly women

Low dietary intake of calcium and poor vitamin D status during aging can result in mild secondary hyperparathyroidism, which may be associated with low muscle mass and reduced strength in the elderly. The aim of this study was to investigate whether low vitamin D, high parathormone (PTH), or both, are associated with sarcopenia. A total of 105 women, 35 with sarcopenia and 70 without sarcopenia, were enrolled in the present study. Body composition measurements were performed by DXA and sarcopenia was defined as skeletal muscle mass index<5.45kg/m2 and grip strength lower than 20kg. Three-day dietary records were taken and adjustments for energy intake made. The estimated average requirement (EAR) method was adopted as a cut-off point for estimating the prevalence of inadequate intake. Serum total calcium, phosphorus, creatinine, intact PTH, and 25(OH)D were measured. Only 1% of the patients met the daily adequate intake for vitamin D and 11% met the daily adequate intake for calcium. Notably, the prevalence of sarcopenia was higher in hyperparathyroidism (25(OH)D<20ng/mL and PTH>65pg/dL) than in the absence of hyperparathyroidism (41.2 vs 16.2%, respectively; p=0.046). The odds ratio for sarcopenia in hyperparathyroidism cases was 6.81 (95%CI 1.29–35.9) compared with participants who had low PTH and a high 25(OH)D concentration. The present study showed that vitamin D insufficiency associated with secondary hyperparathyroidism increased the risk of sarcopenia, suggesting that the suppression of hyperparathyroidism by ensuring adequate calcium and vitamin D intake should be considered in interventional studies to confirm potential benefits.

Dietary macroalgae is a natural and effective tool to fortify gilthead seabream fillets with iodine: Effects on growth, sensory quality and nutritional value

Marine fish are a rich source of iodine in the human diet. Exogenous feeding under captivity opens the possibility of tailoring fish composition with health valuable nutrients, such as iodine, and establishing it as a functional food. A study was undertaken to test the efficacy of various dietary iodine supplemental forms on the growth performance of gilthead seabream and assess the effects on sensory attributes and nutritional value of fillets. Duplicate groups of 35 seabream (IBW: 252 g) were fed over 118 days: a) control diet (CTRL) with 3 mg I kg− 1, supplied as potassium iodide; b) this same control diet supplemented with potassium iodide (diet KI: 26 mg I·kg− 1) or with ethylenediamine dihydroiodide (diet EDDI; 22 mg I·kg− 1); c) a fourth diet with 10% of Laminaria digitata, an iodine-rich macroalgae (diet LAM). At the end of the trial, fish doubled their initial weight, but irrespective of the iodine form used, the elevation of dietary iodine level had no effect (P > 0.05) on feed intake, growth rate, feed conversion, nutrient utilization or whole-body composition. Dietary iodine supplementation led to a significant increase (P < 0.05) of the iodine content in seabream fillets. In comparison to the CTRL treatment (0.13 mg·kg− 1), seabream fed KI and EDDI supplemented diets showed a significant enhancement (P < 0.05) of their fillet iodine content (0.17 mg·kg− 1). Feeding seabream with the iodine-rich brown algae L. digitata resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) 6.5-fold increase (0.84 mg·kg− 1 fillet) of fillet iodine content over the levels found in the CTRL treatment. Overall sensory difference between CTRL and fish fed supplemented diets was significant (P < 0.05) only for fish fed the EDDI diet. Steam-cooking elicited 13–20% losses of the iodine content of seabream fillets. Iodine supplementation had no effect (P > 0.05) on the fatty acid profile of seabream muscle. Dietary iodine-rich macroalgae was an effective and natural strategy to fortify muscle with iodine, showing that a 160 g portion of steam-cooked seabream fillets could cover approximately 80% of the Daily Recommended Intake for iodine and 370% of the Daily Adequate Intake of EPA + DHA for enhanced cardiovascular health in adults.

Daily iodine intake and the impact of salt reduction on iodine prophylaxis in the Italian population.

Salt iodization is one of the preferred strategies to eradicate iodine-deficiency disorders worldwide. The aim of this study was (i) to estimate the daily iodine intake in the Italian population, (ii) to verify whether the recently recommended salt intake of 5 g/day in adults and less in children may be sufficient to achieve the adequate daily iodine intake, (iii) to estimate the contribution of iodine-enriched vegetables to the total daily iodine intake. The content of iodine has been evaluated in 288 food samples highly representative of Italian eating habits. The contribution of foods and iodized salt to the total daily iodine intake was estimated in adults, adolescents, and children on the basis of available nationwide data of food consumption. The total daily iodine intake owing to food and uniodized salt consumption resulted lower than the daily requirement in all age groups. With a daily consumption of 5 g of salt iodized at 30 mg/kg, the estimated daily iodine intake resulted within the range of optimal iodine intake in all age groups. In children the recommended iodine intake is achieved with a daily consumption of 3 g of iodized salt. Moreover, the daily iodine intake significantly increased in all age groups if the consumption of iodine-enriched vegetables was considered in substitution of non iodine-enriched ones. Our study suggests that the recommended quantities of salt, if iodized at 30 mg/kg, are sufficient to achieve the adequate daily iodine intake both in adults and children.

A new HPLC method for the detection of iodine applied to natural samples of edible seaweeds and commercial seaweed food products

Rich in micronutrients and considered to contain high iodine levels, seaweeds have multiple applications as food/supplements and nutraceuticals with potential health implications. Here, we describe the development and validation of a new analytical method to quantify iodine as iodide (I−) using an isocratic HPLC system with UV detection; algal iodine was converted to I− via dry alkaline incineration. The method was successfully applied to 19 macroalgal species from three taxonomic groups and five commercially available seaweed food products. Fesh kelps contained highest levels, reaching >1.0% per dry weight (DW), but concentrations differed amongst thallus parts. In addition to kelps, other brown (Fucales: ∼0.05% DW) and some red species (∼0.05% DW) can also serve as a rich source of iodine; lowest iodine concentrations were detected in green macroalgae (∼0.005% DW), implying that quantities recommended for seaweed consumption may require species-specific re-evaluation to reach adequate daily intake levels.

Selenomethionine and Total Methionine Ratio is Conserved in Seed Proteins of Selenium‐Treated and Nontreated Soybean, Flax, and Potato

ABSTRACTCrop biofortification with Se is widely accepted. However, little is known about the efficiency of selenomethionine (Se‐Met) incorporation into the seed and tuber protein fraction of crops. Here, we report on the efficiency of Se incorporation into the seed and tuber protein fraction of soybean, flax, and potato and the putative identity of some of the proteins that are likely targets for this random pretranslation modification. Soybean, flax, and potato plants received Se using different sodium selenate application methods and rates, and Se‐Met was determined in seed, tuber, and their protein fractions. Selenium content in seed and tuber tissues and in protein fractions was increased by 2 to 86 times. The methionine (Met) pool was increased, as was the proportion of Se‐Met in the Met pool, but the ratio of Se‐Met:total Met was well conserved (1:1) between the treated and nontreated plants. After two‐dimensional (2D) protein electrophoresis, five protein spots were identified as glycinin, trypsin inhibitor (soybean), patatin‐3‐Kuras‐1, patain‐B2, and phosphoenol carboxy kinase (potato), none of which showed S to Se substitution in their primary structure. Linking Se and three stress markers in fresh tuber extracts, glutathione (GSH) level, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GR) activities were increased by 20 to 35%. The data showed low protein modification in these non‐Se‐accumulator crops and indicated that rates of 5 to 10 g ha–1 Se, through foliar application, may ensure not only an adequate daily intake levels for humans but may also activate antioxidant enzyme systems within the tuber tissue.

Simultaneous determination of aspartame, acesulfame-K, saccharin, citric acid and sodium benzoate in various food products using HPLC–CAD–UV/DAD

A newly developed method for simultaneous determination of aspartame, acesulfame-K, saccharin, citric acid and sodium benzoate in various diet supplements and non-alcoholic beverages in a single run is presented. The analytes were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a charged aerosol (Corona CAD) and ultraviolet–diode array detectors simultaneously connected in series. Mass spectrometer MicrOTOF-QII from Bruker Daltonik (Bremen, Germany) was used to obtain the mass spectra for peak identifications. The method was validated using a Thermo Hypersil Gold-C18 column packed with 5 μm shell particles (150 × 4.6 mm) and methanol–water with 0.05 % TFA gradient mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.80 mL/min. The elaborated method was validated for linearity, precision and accuracy. The analytical results obtained in the validation study were highly satisfying; the recoveries for the analytes studied ranged between 98.1 and 101 % and the precision values from 0.11 to 1.73 %. By these procedures, the three sweeteners (aspartame, acesulfame-K and saccharin), citric acid and sodium benzoate could be well separated and quantitatively determined in varied food products. Hundred millilitres of soft drinks contained on average 5.50 mg of aspartame, 6.38 mg of saccharin, 8.94 mg of acesulfame-K, 9.05 mg of sodium benzoate and 111 mg of citric acid. Citric acid was the most abundant additive in all the samples analysed except for table sweeteners, and its highest concentration was determined in diet supplements, i.e. 347 mg/g. The percentage of adequate daily intake realisation in case of all additives is lower than 10 %, except for sodium benzoate in isotonic drinks (10.1 %).

Using Twitter for prenatal health promotion: encouraging a multivitamin habit among college-aged females.

Half of the pregnancies in the United States are unplanned and the highest rate of these unplanned pregnancies occurs in young women aged 18-24y. Serious birth defects, such as those that affect the neural tube, occur early in pregnancy, most of the time before a woman knows she is pregnant. These neural tube defects can be reduced by 50-72% with an adequate daily intake of folic acid. In continuing the research on how to effectively communicate the important benefits of folic acid to young women, this study sought to investigate the use of social media as a tool for health promotion. Young women are considered the 'power users' of social media and the current study uses Twitter as a vehicle for multivitamin promotion messages due to the ability to quickly share content and the potential to attract viral attention through re-tweets.

Dietary calcium intake and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women living in Sarajevo area

Introduction: Osteoporosis is a multifactorial polygenetic disease of which the genetic determinants are modulated by hormonal, environmental and nutritional factors. Identifi cation of the risk factors for osteoporosisrelated to nutrition is important in the prevention and treatment of this disease, considering that these factors can be modifi ed. The aim of this study was to examine infl uence of dietary calcium intake on bonemineral density in postmenopausal women who hadn’t a deficit of estrogen in their menstrual history.Methods: A total of 100 postmenopausal women living in Sarajevo area, aged 50-65 years, without estrogen deficiency in menstrual history were included in the study. Mineral bone density was measured at the lumbarspine and proximal femur by Dual–Energy X–ray Absorptiometry using Hologic QDR-4000 scanner. Examination and control group were formed based on mineral bone density values. The women in the examinationgroup had osteoporosis. The women in the control group had osteopenia or normal mineral bone density. Estimates of daily dietary calcium intake were performed based on a Food Frequency Questionnaire.Results: The average daily intake of dietary calcium among women who had osteoporosis was 967.32 mg, and in women who hadn’t osteoporosis 1195.12 mg. The difference between two groups was statistically significant (p&lt;0.001). There was registered signifi cant correlation between intake of dietary calcium and mineral bone density in examination (p&lt;0.01) and in control group (p&lt;0.01).Conclusion: The results of this study have shown that adequate daily intake of dietary calcium in postmenopausal women aged 50-65 years living in Sarajevo area, which hadn’t estrogen defi ciency in their menstrualhistory (in the group of women without osteoporosis amounted to 1195.12 mg) has a positive impact on bone mineral density.

Promoting hydration

A learning zone article helped Diane Taylor ensure patients achieve adequate daily fluid intake

The impact of adding front-of-package sodium content labels to grocery products: an experimental study.

Canadians consume approximately twice the daily Adequate Intake of sodium. The present study examined the efficacy of four types of front-of-package (FOP) sodium labels at influencing consumers' selection of products low v. high in sodium. Participants were randomly assigned to one of five experimental conditions: (i) control condition with no FOP label; (ii) basic numeric FOP label; (iii) numeric FOP label with 'high' and 'low' sodium content descriptors; (iv) detailed Traffic Light (TL) label with colour coding, content descriptors and numeric information; and (v) simple TL label with no numeric information. Participants were shown pairs of grocery products that varied in sodium content and told they could choose a free sample. Selection of the low-sodium v. the high-sodium product was the primary behavioural outcome, in addition to ratings of effectiveness, understanding, liking and believability. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Adults (n 430) aged ≥18 years, recruited from community settings. Participants in the three FOP conditions with 'high/low' sodium content descriptors were significantly more likely to choose the lower-sodium product compared with the control group. The detailed TL label was ranked most effective at helping participants select low-sodium products, and was rated significantly higher than other formats in liking, understanding and believability. Product selection did not differ significantly across sociodemographic groups. FOP labels that include content descriptors may be more effective in helping consumers to select lower-sodium products. TL labels, which incorporate content descriptors and colour coding, should be considered for future FOP labelling initiatives.

THE IMPACT OF BODY WEIGHT MANAGEMENT IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE PATIENTS WITH OBESITY

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and obesity are important public health concerns. We examined the influence of dietary management and physical exercises on renal function, lipid profiles and exercise tolerance of a group of CKD patients. We enrolled 45 obese patients with CKD from stage 1 to 3b with tailored by regular dietitian consultation, recommendations of adequate daily protein and caloric intake, and physical exercises for body weight (BW) reduction. The target was BW reduction ≥ 3%. Thirty eight obese CKD patients completed the study and 24 patients reached the target. Patients who reached the target was significant larger in total body fat decrement than those who failed (3.0% vs 0.5%, p = 0.003). In addition, total muscle mass, especially on trunk and lower limbs (1.2% vs 0%, P = 0.026) was significant decreased in patients who reached the target compared to those who failed. The laboratory data disclosed the significant reduction of Chol (0.7% vs. -19.3%; P = 0.007), LDL-C ( 3.7% vs. -37.6%; P

The influence of breakfast and dairy products on dietary calcium and vitamin D intake in postpubertal adolescents and young adults

Given the importance of both calcium and vitamin D for bone health and the high prevalence of vitamin D from around the world, the present study aimed to evaluate calcium and vitamin D intake in a group of healthy Brazilian adolescents and young adults and to examine the influence of breakfast and dairy products in the total intake of these nutrients. One hundred and sixty adolescents and young adults, aged 16-20 years old, from a public school, participated in the present study. Three-day dietary records were used to assess calcium and vitamin D intakes. Serum 25(OH)D levels were measured using a radioimmunoassay kit. The results were expressed as the mean (SD). Only 3.8% of the subjects met the daily adequate intake recommendation for calcium, and none for vitamin D [682.2 (132.2)mg day(-1) and 124.0 (28.0)IU day(-1) , respectively]. 25(OH)D serum levels were insufficient in 51.5% and deficient in 9.7% of the individuals [72.5 (22.3) nmol L(-1) ]. There was a significant positive correlation between dairy product intake with both calcium and vitamin D (r=0.597 and r =0.561, respectively; P=0.000). Adolescents who ate breakfast had a significant higher mean calcium, vitamin D and dairy product intake than adolescents who did not report this meal. The majority of adolescents and young adults did not consume recommended intakes of calcium and vitamin D and also presented 25(OH)D insufficiency. The results indicate that a regular breakfast and the consumption of dairy products represent important strategies in improving calcium and vitamin D intake in the diet.

Food consumption patterns among adolescent and young adult smokers

Smoking is a major determinant in the development of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Mortality statistics pinpoint smoking as the second leading cause of death worldwide, and the primary cause of both preventable and premature death. Despite evidence accumulated on its health hazards, smoking remains a widespread practice.1 Of particular concern is the high and steady prevalence of smoking among youngsters. Beside the acute health problems specific to premature tobacco use, those who start smoking in early life have an amplified risk of becoming addicted, turning into heavy smokers and dying prematurely.1 Like smoking, unhealthy eating habits are associated with noncommunicable disease.3 Diets rich in fat, salt and free sugars and low in fruit, vegetables and complex carbohydrates are considered to increase the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease and cancer.4 Failure to eat breakfast is also unfavourable, as it compromises the possibility of adequate daily intake of energy, vitamins and minerals essential for physical and cognitive development in youth. Since the early 1990s, different studies have revealed that smokers tend to adopt unhealthy diets that exacerbate the risk of chronic disease,5,6 calling for conjugate preventive actions. In reflection, this study aimed to examine whether the denounced combination of toxic behaviours persisted in Belgium after a decade of awareness-raising signals from the scientific field. Hence, it tackled the question of the extent to which eating habits differed according to smoking status among late adolescents and young adults, when behavioural patterns develop and settle. It was hypothesized that young smokers were less likely to eat breakfast, fruit and vegetables compared with never-smokers, and a gradient reflecting increased risk of unhealthy diet in heavier smokers was anticipated.