Early literacy acquisition is a critical foundation for academic success, yet many Grades 1–3 learners experience reading and comprehension difficulties without the support of validated diagnostic tools that identify both enabling and hindering factors within their learning context. Existing school-based literacy programs often rely on general assessments that do not systematically capture socio-cultural, motivational, and environmental influences affecting literacy development. This study developed and validated a diagnostic instrument designed to identify success and barrier factors influencing literacy acquisition in English and Filipino among primary learners. Anchored in the Alalay sa Literasiya initiative of the Community Extension and Outreach Project Office (CEOPO) at Manuel V. Gallego Foundation Colleges (MVGFC), the tool supports targeted, evidence-based classroom and intervention planning. The instrument measures success indicators (e.g., reading interest, self- awareness, language exposure, and socio-cultural support) and barrier indicators (e.g., family constraints, financial limitations, environmental factors, and motivation) using a 4-point Likert scale, including a Filipino- language version to ensure accessibility. Face and content validation were conducted by literacy and education experts. Quantitative validation using the Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) yielded a high scale-level CVI (S-CVI = 0.935), while reliability testing showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.930). These findings confirm that the instrument is valid and reliable for identifying literacy-related factors and can assist teachers and schools in designing responsive literacy interventions for Grades 1–3 learners.

ABSTRACT In multilingual educational contexts, understanding how first language (L1) systems shape the autonomous development of second language (L2) grammar is increasingly important, particularly in trilingual settings. The study investigates the influence of Polish (L1) grammar on the self-directed acquisition of English (L2) among learners who are proficient in or acquiring a third language (L3: German, French, or Russian). Although crosslinguistic influence (CLI) is well documented in second language acquisition, few studies address L1-mediated L2 grammar learning in autonomous contexts among trilinguals. Conducted across multiple philological faculties in Poland, the study involved 175 university students enrolled in language programs. A mixed-methods design enhanced methodological rigor by integrating grammar elicitation tasks, written reflections, and semi-structured interviews, enabling triangulated analysis of morphosyntactic transfer, interlinguistic influence, and structural convergence. Findings indicate that Polish grammar exerts both facilitative and constraining effects at syntax–pragmatics and syntax-semantics interfaces. Learners exhibited overgeneralization, null subject transfer, and word order interference, while actively using L1 as a cognitive scaffold and filter. These patterns suggest strategic regulation rather than passive transfer, highlighting the role of metalinguistic awareness and grammar monitoring. The study reframes L1 influence in autonomous learning and offers implications for designing multilingual, autonomy-supportive grammar instruction in practice.

This study examines the parents’ challenges and needs in assisting their autistic children’s English language learning at home. Parents of autistic children in the rural areas require attention as they too need the proper support for their children’s language learning endeavours. Currently, there is a dearth of studies on parents’ challenges and needs in facilitating the development of their children’s language acquisition in English at home. Through a narrative review method, this paper focuses on the challenges and needs of parents of children with autism in the rural areas of Sabah and Sarawak. The analysis of the relevant literature reveals several challenges faced by parents of autistic children in the rural areas. These include communication and behavioural barriers, parents’ own limited knowledge and emotional stress, and lack of collaborative support from the community. The review also highlights the needs of the parents in preparing a conducive home learning environment to optimise their autistic children’s ESL learning experiences. Among the needs identified are training in autism-specific English language teaching strategies, emotional and psychological support, and more potent home-school collaborative synergy. It implies that parents have an essential role to play in enriching their autistic children’s English language learning experiences at home.

Understanding students' English-learning needs is critical for effective curriculum design and teaching in higher education. This study investigates undergraduate students' opinions on internal and external factors influencing English-learning demands at a Vietnamese institution. The study included 240 students, with equal representation across all four year levels. The study used a structured questionnaire to investigate internal factors such as motivation, confidence, career goals, and self-perceived proficiency, as well as external factors such as curriculum, teaching methods, learning materials, facilities, peer influence, extracurricular activities, and family support. The findings suggest that students see both internal and external variables as key effects on their English learning needs, with no discernible differences between year levels. The study also found a strong link between learner-related dispositions and institutional and environmental support. These findings emphasize the importance of preserving curriculum quality while expanding extracurricular and authentic communication opportunities to effectively enhance students' English acquisition in Vietnamese higher education.

The escalating financial burden of private coaching centres has transformed English language education into a privilege rather than a right in Bangladesh’s higher secondary system. This study examines whether AI tools can democratise English learning by promoting student autonomy and reducing coaching dependency. It also investigates students’ willingness to accept AI-mediated learning and its perceived influence on learning independence using a mixed-methods approach with a purposive sample of higher secondary students (n=20). Preliminary findings suggest that students exposed to AI tools demonstrate increased confidence in self-directed learning. The data indicates a significant shift in learners’ perceptions regarding their capability to navigate English acquisition independently, with many expressing willingness to reduce or eliminate coaching centre attendance. However, as students recognise their needs for technological help and instructor direction in efficiently utilising these digital tools, the move necessitates cautious scaffolding. The study increases our knowledge of how developing countries might use technology to close the gap in education and prepare students for global citizenship. This study provides insights into how developing countries might use technology to close educational gaps and rethink English language education in resource-constrained environments by investigating the relationship among digital literacy, learner autonomy, and economic accessibility. The ramifications go beyond Bangladesh, offering strategies for comparable educational environments battling challenges of equitable, quality instruction. The findings advocate for strategic curriculum reform that positions AI not as a replacement for human instruction, but as an empowering complement that cultivates independent, confident language learners.

ABSTRACT An increasing number of learners worldwide follow some or all of their secondary education in a second language. In the Netherlands, two contexts in which this commonly occurs are bilingual education programs, which promote the acquisition of English, and Dutch-medium reception classes for newly-arrived migrant students. In these contexts, teachers have the additional responsibility to scaffold language learning in their content-based lessons. However, very few studies focus on the type of language scaffolds that teachers employ. This study provides an overview of form-focused language scaffolding strategies used by teachers teaching citizenship-related subjects in both contexts. The inquiry focused on scaffolding strategies reported and employed by seventeen teachers across 33 interviews and 44 lessons. The investigation identified thirteen different strategies. Findings reveal that both contexts used forms-focused scaffolding: word-level strategies targeted productive demands, while sentence- and text-level scaffolding addressed both receptive and productive needs. In reception classes, word-level strategies predominated in frequency and variety, whereas Dutch bilingual secondary education teachers focused most extensively on text-level scaffolding to support productive demands. The transitional nature of reception programs and the enriching nature of bilingual education can help us understand this distribution. Understanding language scaffolding repertoires can help to realise multilingual education’s central promise.

The interaction between languages in the learning process is a complex phenomenon influenced by linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural factors. This article investigates the dynamic relationship between English and Bambara as a medium of learning within an African educational framework. Relying on a comprehensive documentary analysis, translanguaging, distributed cognition, and the didactics of complexity, the study examines the role of Bambara as a mediating language in the acquisition of English. It also suggests that the strategic use of local linguistic resources can facilitate the comprehension of abstract concepts, enhance communicative competence, and promote critical thinking. The findings indicate that multilingual learning environments, when effectively structured, contribute to deeper cognitive engagement and more meaningful language acquisition. They thereby show that the integration of local languages into English language instruction remains a challenge due to restrictive linguistic policies in Francophone Africa, which often favor monolingual approaches and neglect the potential benefits of linguistic diversity. This article argues for a systemic and integrative pedagogical approach that positions Bambara not as a hindrance but as a valuable asset in English learning. By advocating for curriculum reforms that acknowledge the cognitive and sociocultural advantages of multilingual education, the study underscores the importance of rethinking language policies to align with the realities of African learners. Ultimately, this research contributes to the broader discourse on language education by proposing a more inclusive and contextually relevant framework that leverages local languages to support English acquisition in multilingual settings.

Traditional language instruction has been the dominant approach in early childhood education, yet integrating robotic systems presents new opportunities to enhance second language acquisition. This study introduces a multimodal robot-assisted learning framework featuring the OpenManipulator-X, an interactive robotic system designed to support English acquisition among Korean preschoolers. A comparative experiment was conducted in which children first participated in teacher-led English instruction, followed by robot-assisted learning using task-based interactions, including pick-and-place activities and collaborative drawing. The study evaluates engagement, vocabulary acquisition, and learning effectiveness across both methods. Results indicate that robot-assisted learning fosters greater engagement and interaction, while language retention remained comparable to traditional instruction. In addition, the robot’s physical behaviors—such as object manipulation and drawing—contributed to increased attention and participation. The novelty of this work lies in its integration of multimodal interaction combining robotic embodiment, AR-based manipulation, and tablet-guided educational tasks within a unified instructional system. These findings contribute to child–robot interaction (CRI) research, offering a scalable hybrid learning model for early childhood education. Future work should explore AI-driven personalization and long-term developmental impact.

With the introduction of digital technology and artificial intelligence, learning English is changing dramatically. By combining the results of the previous ten years of research, this study—which is being conducted using the narrative review method—aims to fill these gaps by offering a thorough grasp of the present trends, difficulties, and potential future directions in the use of AI to English language learning. The majority of current research is on the effectiveness of certain AI technologies, paying little consideration to the long-term impacts on learners' sociocultural competency, language ability, and retention. Furthermore, the majority of research to far has focused on English as a foreign language, with little attention paid to how AI can facilitate multilingualism or the acquisition of English as a second language in various sociocultural contexts. Studies examining the pedagogical, cultural, and ethical ramifications of widespread AI deployment in language instruction—particularly in non-Western contexts—are also lacking. This study highlights both the exciting promise and the difficulties of integrating GenAI technology, providing insightful information about the changing field of AI use in English learning. Conducting empirical research on the principles in this study is one suggestion for future research.

In this paper, we examine the relationship between language proficiency and metalinguistic awareness among Hungarian secondary school students in Harghita County, Romania, using empirical data from a fact-finding study conducted in the school year 2023–2024. After outlining the theoretical framework and describing the research methodology, the study presents findings based on a sample of 1,520 participants. As both languages under investigation have been learned/acquired after the mother tongue, the paper first reports the results of the English and Romanian proficiency tests, followed by an analysis of the factors that participants identified as influencing their performance. Finally, the study explores how students perceive the role of metalinguistic awareness and metalinguistic knowledge in their language learning outcomes. By comparing the acquisition processes of the two languages, the research demonstrates that the mode of learning plays a decisive role in shaping the function of metalinguistic awareness.

IntroductionGrowing scholarly interest has emphasized the significance of non-cognitive variables in influencing learners’ informal English acquisition through artificial intelligence (AI)-enhanced digital platforms. Despite this, research remains sparse on how motivational constructs, emotional responses, particularly enjoyment, and anxiety resulting from AI-assisted learning (AAL), and participation in AI-mediated informal digital English learning (AI-IDLE) collectively contribute to learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in speaking English as a foreign language (EFL).MethodsEmploying an explanatory sequential mixed-method design, this study surveyed 308 EFL secondary students in China, followed by in-depth interviews with eight voluntary respondents. Quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis involving both open and axial coding procedures.ResultsPath results demonstrated that AAL negatively predicted EFL learners’ AI-IDLE engagement. However, AI-IDLE exerted no statistically significant influence on students’ self-reported self-efficacy in spoken English. Notably, enjoyment emerged as a mediator in the paths from the ideal second language (L2) self to both AI-IDLE and self-efficacy beliefs in speaking capacity. Qualitative data based on narrative descriptions evinced the heterogeneity of motivational and emotional factors of students operating in AI-supported informal learning situations.DiscussionThrough a combination of quantitative results with interpretative reflections, this study presents some useful guidelines for maximizing student participation with respect to AI-IDLE, ensuring AI literacy, and protecting their emotional wellbeing through the rapidly developing environment of generative AI.

As technology has advanced, English has emerged as the universal language of communication. Acquiring proficiency in English is essential, and the attitude towards learning English is considered a crucial factor influencing the learning outcomes. Given the importance of education in moulding students’ psychological well-being, knowledge of emotions has received increased attention. Hence, the emotional aspects of learners, which impact various areas of daily life, warrant further investigation. This study examines the influence of attitude towards English acquisition and emotional intelligence on academic performance and language proficiency among pre-university learners. Academic performance is assessed based on grade point average (GPA), and language proficiency is assessed by the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) band score. To achieve this, 116 pre-university learners were randomly selected, and data on attitudes, academic performance, language proficiency and emotional intelligence were collected through a questionnaire survey. The results indicate that females scored higher in emotional intelligence compared to males. Additionally, females are more likely to experience fear or unpleasant emotions while learning English than their male counterparts. Attitude towards English acquisition emerged as the only significant predictor that enhanced the model’s predictive capability for MUET band scores. The study concludes by emphasising the importance of learners’ attitudes in shaping their English language learning process, suggesting that greater awareness in this area could lead to more effective language acquisition and improved educational outcomes. Implications drawn from the current study suggest that integrating emotional intelligence and attitudes towards English acquisition can help learners develop positive academic performance. Finally, this study is projected to be useful for educators and policymakers.

This study investigates the effectiveness of a community-based English coaching program for mothers, named English Mommies Club, in improving both maternal English competency and primary students’ English acquisition. The participants were 30 mothers of primary school learners and their 30 children, enrolled in Grades 4 to 6 at state and private primary schools in Indonesia, representing diverse educational backgrounds and family contexts. Grounded in the premise that parents, particularly mothers, play a central role in children’s academic development, the study employed a dominant quantitative experimental design with a supportive qualitative component. Pre- and post-tests were administered to both mothers and students to measure changes in English proficiency, while questionnaires were distributed to capture shifts in parental involvement and learning behaviors. The findings indicate significant improvements in mothers’ English competency following participation in the program, accompanied by measurable gains in students’ English performance. A positive relationship was also identified between maternal English proficiency and students’ English acquisition. Overall, the study highlights the importance of empowering mothers linguistically as a strategic approach to strengthening English learning outcomes in primary education contexts.

IntroductionThis study investigates the cognitive mechanisms and educational efficacy of AI-powered scaffolding in the acquisition of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in tertiary education.Integrating the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), the cross-disciplinary framework explores multidimensional pathways affecting the acquisition efficiency of EFL, focusing on learning efficiency of individual acquisition of EFL (LEF) of university students at all levels, and highlighting the mediating role of Cognitive Processing Depth (CPD) and moderating effects of Cognitive Ability (COA).MethodsQuantitative data analysis from university students using AI-assisted conversational tools of AI -powered scaffolding were specifically conducted via structural equation modeling (SEM) and necessary condition analysis (NCA).ResultsResults indicate perceived usefulness (PU) and ease of use (PEoU) directly predict LEF, while interaction frequency of AI-assisted conversation (AIC) exerts indirect effects through CPD. Cognitive ability strengthens the relationship between AI-conversational tool usage and CPD, supporting Self-Regulated Learning theory. NCA identifies critical thresholds of AIC and PeoU for achieving effective learning outcomes, offering actionable insights for real-time educational interventions.DiscussionThe findings emphasize the necessity of cognitive adaptation strategies, platform diversification, and learner-centric AI-conversational tool design. While limited by sample homogeneity and cross-sectional data, this study underscores the value of longitudinal approaches and broader socio-cognitive investigations in future research. Collectively, Such findings based on empirical evidence, advance the optimizing of AI-enhanced, cognitively attuned language learning systems.

Research on corpus linguistics in language learning has primarily emphasized lexical patterns, collocations, and discourse structures, yet their application to onomastics remains underexplored. Research on Batik Madura’s naming conventions has largely been descriptive, lacking integration into vocabulary acquisition and cultural identity development in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction. To address this gap, this study examines the impact of corpus-based onomastic analysis on students’ vocabulary acquisition and cultural awareness. A sequential mixed-methods approach was employed, involving pre- and post-tests and a closed-ended questionnaire to measure lexical retention, semantic comprehension, and cultural identity awareness among 53 undergraduate students at STKIP PGRI Sumenep, Indonesia. Additionally, structured interviews with six selected students provided in-depth insights into their experiences with corpus-based learning. The findings revealed that exposure to Batik Madura’s naming conventions through corpus analysis improved students’ ability to recognize word formations and contextual meanings, leading to a deeper understanding of linguistic structures. However, some students encountered difficulties interpreting abstract cultural meanings embedded in names. The study suggests incorporating explicit instructional scaffolding to bridge conceptual gaps. These findings highlight the potential of onomastics-based corpus analysis in enhancing vocabulary learning while underscoring the need for pedagogical adjustments to optimize its effectiveness in EFL contexts.

This study investigates the influence of learners’ mother tongues on the acquisition of English as a First Additional Language (EFAL) among Grade 1 learners in South Africa’s rural Klein Letaba Circuit, Limpopo Province. Guided by Cummins’ Interdependence Hypothesis and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, the study employs an interpretivist qualitative design involving eight purposefully selected Grade 1 teachers from multilingual classrooms. Semi-structured interviews were thematically analysed to identify patterns of phonological, grammatical, and lexical transfer, alongside teachers’ pedagogical responses. Findings reveal that learners frequently transfer L1 sound systems and grammatical structures into English, resulting in predictable decoding, pronunciation, and syntactic errors. Teachers report that strategic translanguaging—purposeful alternation between English and local languages such as Xitsonga, Tshivenda, and Sepedi—enhances comprehension, pronunciation, and learner engagement. Teachers’ narratives further highlight that bilingual scaffolding affirms cultural identity, reduces cognitive load, and strengthens early literacy development, despite persistent shortages of bilingual resources and limited professional development. The study concludes that mother-tongue-based bilingual instruction is not a remedial strategy but a foundational approach for promoting equitable literacy and cognitive growth in multilingual contexts. Its originality lies in situating translanguaging pedagogy within rural African classrooms and illustrating how teachers operationalise bilingualism under material and ideological constraints. By offering classroom-level insights, the study contributes to national conversations about South Africa’s 81% reading comprehension crisis, as reported in PIRLS 2021. Although based on a small, context-specific sample, the findings provide transferable implications for multilingual education policy and EFAL pedagogy across rural African settings.

This research investigates tertiary-level students’ perceptions, benefits, and challenges of code-mixing, both foreign and domestic. A mixed-methods approach was employed to conduct the research at three private universities in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Using convenience sampling, quantitative data were collected through a survey administered to 100 tertiary-level students. Deploying purposive sampling, qualitative data were collected by semi-structured interviews with 5 domestic and 2 foreign tertiary-level students. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were respectively used for quantitative and qualitative data analysis. 50% agree that code-mixing eases communication, while 54% sometimes encounter challenges understanding class lectures due to code-mixing. The interviews find that the domestic students consider teachers’ meshing of Bangla and English conducive to their classroom learning. In contrast, the foreign students perceive code-mixing as curbing their comprehension of class lectures and their learning. This research highlights the need for further exploration of how code-mixing affects classroom learning and English acquisition across departments and disciplines.

ABSTRACT Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is important in language acquisition within multilingual contexts. China offers a particularly rich setting for examining CLI in phonology, as Sinitic languages vary in nasal patterns. This study explores how L1 non-Mandarin Sinitic languages (Wu and Cantonese) influence nasal acquisition in L2 Mandarin and L3 English, and examines CLI in L3 pronunciation. 40 English learners with Wu or Cantonese as L1, along with 20 native Mandarin and 20 native English speakers as baseline groups, were recruited to read Consonant-Vowel-Nasal words. Duration, F2, and locus equation slope were analyzed using mixed linear models. The results show that: (1) L1 influences nasal production in both L2 and L3, with a stronger effect in L3 English. (2) Wu and Cantonese learners showed different outcomes: in L2 Mandarin, both acquired /n/ and /ŋ/ to different extents; in L3 English, Cantonese learners approximated English patterns, whereas Wu learners showed neither internal contrasts nor alignment with English norms. (3) L2 performance did not significantly predict L3 outcomes. (4) Findings support the L1 Default Theory (Hammarberg & Hammarberg, 1993), as L1 exerted stronger influence on L3 phonology than L2, with complementary insights from the revised Speech Learning Model (Flege & Bohn, 2021).

As a lingua franca, the acquisition of English as second and foreign language has been strongly influenced by the first language of the speakers. This influence which is commonly called interferences has been pronounced especially in the pronunciation where the second language production of speech is highly affected by the first language phonological inventory. The differences in the phonological system of Igbo spoken by Nigerian and English, thus, are interesting to be investigated due to the wide differences of both phonological systems. This research addresses phonological interferences of Igbo in the pronunciation of English vowels /ʌ/ and /eɪ/. A qualitative case study approach was conducted using Weinrich’s framework of phonological interference. The findings show that the realization of phoneme /ʌ/ experience under-differentiation in initial position where it is consistently substituted with /ɔ/. However, in medial position, it is variably substituted with /ɔ/ or /ə/, which indicates that other influences may be involved. Meanwhile, the substitution of the diphthong /eɪ/ demonstrates a clear case of actual phone substitution either in the medial position or in the final position. The sounds used for substitution are phonologically similar to the target diphthong, which indicates that the pattern of replacement is predictable rather than random. This systematic replacement of one phoneme with its closest L1 equivalent confirms that the observed interference is a direct case of actual phone substitution. The observed interference patterns, while consistent, are based on a limited dataset. Therefore, further research with a larger sample size is needed for generalization.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how translanguaging advanced Xitsonga language education through literacy development practices in Limpopo schools. It focused on how learners and teachers used multiple languages, mainly Xitsonga and English, to support reading and writing development in multilingual classrooms. A qualitative research design was employed, involving classroom observations, semi-structured interviews with Xitsonga teachers, and analysis of learner writing samples from selected primary and secondary schools in Limpopo Province. The study aimed to understand how translanguaging was applied in literacy instruction and how it influenced learner outcomes. Findings revealed that translanguaging significantly improved learners’ comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and confidence in both Xitsonga and English. Teachers who incorporated translanguaging strategies created inclusive learning environments that affirmed learners’ linguistic identities and promoted active participation. The research also found that translanguaging enabled learners to draw on prior knowledge and use familiar language to access unfamiliar content. Based on these findings, the study recommended the integration of translanguaging into teacher education programmes and the development of multilingual teaching materials tailored to learners’ linguistic backgrounds. School policies should also support flexible language use in classrooms to improve literacy outcomes. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that translanguaging served as an effective tool for enhancing literacy development in Xitsonga-speaking learners. This study contributes to scholarship by highlighting the practical application of translanguaging in indigenous language education and underscores its value in promoting equitable and inclusive teaching practices in South African schools.