Sediment Accumulation Research Articles (Page 1)

The southern Absheron Peninsula is experiencing increasing ecological stress caused by both climatic shifts and anthropogenic pressures. Using multi-sensor satellite data, we estimated water quality indicators Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), Trophic State Index (TSI), Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), and Land Surface Temperature (LST) for 2021-2025. An investigation of water quality in the research area was conducted using Sentinel-2 optical data and processed with Google Earth Engine (GEE) from 2021 to 2025. The integration of remote sensing and cloud-based processing provides a practical framework for long-term monitoring, supporting data-driven decision-making for sustainable coastal management. To explore the physical drivers underlying these ecological changes, ICESat-2 ATL03 photon data were used to evaluate vertical seafloor changes along a fixed coastal track. This shoaling is attributed to sediment accumulation or coastal infilling, likely linked to reclamation activities and altered hydrodynamic conditions near the Zigh shoreline. The surface temperature displayed warming in summer most surpassing 30 °C, overlapping with higher Chl-a and TSI values and highlighting the role of temperature in intensifying eutrophication risk. Land reclamation along the Zigh and Hovsan coastline decreased water circulation, resulting in the boosting of CDOM and Chl-a accumulation. We complemented this with ICESat-2 photon-based bathymetry estimation and GRACE/GRACE-FO sea level observations. ICESat-2 bathymetry analyses approved significant nearshore bathymetry changes, with depths decreasing from ~7m (2020-2021) to 2-3m in 2024, reflecting sedimentation and shoreline transformation. GRACE/GRACE-FO observations of sea-level decline reinforce the combined influence of hydrological change, sediment redistribution, and human-driven alterations on coastal morphology. Results underscore the pressing nature of the situation, with climate-driven sea-level decline, rising temperatures, and local anthropogenic activities jointly degrading water quality and reshaping bathymetry in the southern Absheron Peninsula. This integrated approach highlights the urgent need for enhanced wastewater management and sustainable coastal planning to protect the Caspian Sea's ecosystems.

The genetic processes of a riverbed significantly influence its dynamics, shaped by various active factors, such as liquid and solid flow, and passive factors, including geological characteristics, geomorphometric features, and the granulometry of the riverbed. In a river bifurcation, the distribution of water flow and sediments downstream between the branches is uneven, leading to alterations in the riverbed and banks. Understanding the dynamics of the riverbed in confluence areas is crucial for managing water resources, assessing flood risk, predicting the long-term morphological evolution of the branches, and ensuring the success of river regulation projects. This study aims to evaluate the dynamics of the Danube banks from 2003 to 2020 in the confluence area at Ceatal Izmail, located at the entrance to the Danube Delta at Mm 43 (Km 80). A diachronic analysis of satellite images was performed to illustrate the riverbank dynamics in the Ceatal Izmail bifurcation, providing highly effective and yielding valuable results. For this study, we utilized Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS satellite images and images from Google Earth from the studied period and topographic surveys carried out in 2020 using a Trimble R4 RTK GPS. As a result of the satellite images analysis of and topographic measurements of the Danube banks, we created a map showing the changes in the banks of the Ceatal Izmail bifurcation between 2003 and 2020. Significant changes were observed during this period, attributed to erosion or sediment accumulation. Some sectors exhibited relative stability, remaining unchanged throughout the analyzed period. The area most impacted by erosion is located on the right bank of the Danube, between Mm 43.8 and Mm 43, where the erosion of the riverbank varies between 15 and 70 meters. This sector was monitored in 2021, 2022, and 2023 through topographic surveys of 20 trees arranged in two alignments at the edge of the Danube riverbank. We also calculated the erosion rate. After processing the collected data, we found significant changes in the distance between the first row of trees and the edge of the right Danube bank. Five trees marked in the first alignment fell into the water due to bank collapse. As a result of the erosion affecting the banks, the area of land lost between 2003 and 2020 totaled approximately 3.8 hectares. The most significant sectors with sediment accumulation are located on the right bank of the Chilia branch and on the left bank of the Danube between Mm 43.8 and Mm 43, where the total area of land gained through sedimentation at the bifurcation banks was 10.7 hectares. In this study, we calculated the erosion and deposition rates by considering three cross-sections on each bifurcation branch. The rates of erosion and sedimentation varied, ranging from -1.04 m to +2.01 m for sections on the Danube, from -0.47 m/year to +4.15 m/year for sections on the Chilia branch, and from -1.03 m/year to +1.07 m/year for sections on the Tulcea branch.

Following the breakup of Pangea in the Early Jurassic, plate motion trajectories from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic gave rise to a succession of new oceans and seas. Their development frequently involved the opening and closure of ocean gateways, which in turn shaped the structure and exchange of water masses. These processes influenced not only climate, but also deep-marine sedimentation patterns, as well as the morphology of continental margins and abyssal plains across ocean basins. This study provides a comprehensive review of ocean gateways and their global paleogeographic evolution, aiming to explain the origin, development, and distribution of contourite and mixed depositional systems through Earth's history. The emergence of these systems was not random; rather, they formed as extensive sediment accumulations in specific deepwater physiographic settings. Their long-term stacking patterns exerted a fundamental control on basin-scale morphology, including the architecture of continental slopes and margins. Although these depositional systems represent key components of deepwater stratigraphic records, they remain under-recognized. They preserve evidence of sedimentary, tectonic, and oceanographic-climatic processes, recording their timing and interactions. Despite the central role of ocean gateways in governing the onset and evolution of these systems, significant uncertainties persist regarding the geological and paleoceanographic processes operating within and around them. Addressing these uncertainties requires future research aimed at better constraining their timing and evolutionary pathways.

Sediment organic carbon dynamics and accumulation in estuarine mangrove wetlands

Blue carbon loss driven by the accelerating rate of sea level rise during the Anthropocene Marine Transgression, Southeast Saline Everglades, Florida.

Sedimentation in Saudi Arabia's 574 reservoirs: Nationwide assessment using remote sensing and erosion modeling.

Sedimentation substantially buries more carbon than nitrogen or phosphorus in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China.

Dili, the capital city of Timor-Leste, is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to its geomorphological characteristics and rapid urban expansion. The Comoro River, the largest of several rivers traversing the city, has experienced multiple significant flood events in recent years—most notably in March 2020, April 2021, and February 2022 resulting in severe damage to infrastructure and disruption to local communities. Urban development has led to watershed degradation, sediment accumulation, reduced channel capacity, and embankment overtopping, exacerbating flood risks in densely populated areas. This study aims to assess flood risk and evaluate embankment resilience using an integrated modeling approach. Design flood discharge was estimated using the Log Pearson Type III distribution and the Nakayasu synthetic unit hydrograph, with validation through Chi-Square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit tests. Hydraulic simulations were conducted using HEC-RAS 6.1.0, while flood inundation mapping was performed with ArcGIS 10.3 to identify critical flood-prone zones and guide mitigation strategies. Results indicate a peak discharge of 192.141 m³/s for a 25-year return period flood. Mitigation measures proposed include embankment construction and river normalization at vulnerable cross-sections. HEC-RAS simulations demonstrate that these interventions significantly reduce flood inundation. The embankment slope stability factor was calculated at 14.25, indicating a high level of structural safety. The estimated cost for implementing these flood control measures is USD 571,366.87. This study provides a replicable framework for flood hazard modeling and infrastructure planning in urban river systems, contributing to climate-resilient development and evidence-based decision-making in Southeast Asian contexts.

This study analyzed the decline in performance of the cooling water pump system operating in an open-loop configuration at the PLTA Besai. The use of untreated river water introduces high sediment loads, which were hypothesized to reduce hydraulic performance due to internal fouling and head losses. The objective was to assess the extent of performance degradation and identify key loss contributors using empirical field measurements and analytical modeling. Field data showed that the pump operated at 122.4 m³/h and 37.3 m head, compared to its design of 180 m³/h and 48 m head, with efficiency dropping from 74% to 50.02%. Quantitative analysis using Darcy–Weisbach-based calculations revealed major losses in the air cooler (25.08 m) and strainer (5.64 m), caused by sediment accumulation. The study confirms that sedimentation significantly increases hydraulic resistance, disrupts flow uniformity, and forces the system to operate far from its best efficiency point. These findings support the need for regular desedimentation, enhanced filtration, and consideration of closed-loop retrofitting to restore optimal performance and reduce maintenance costs in tropical river-based hydropower systems.

An integrated analysis including total organic carbon (TOC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and gas adsorption experiments was conducted on core samples from the deep Wufeng–Longmaxi (WF-LMX) Formation in the Zigong area to characterize its lithofacies and reservoir characteristics and their influencing factors. The results suggest that eight distinct lithofacies are distinguished and argillaceous/calcareous mixed siliceous shale lithofacies (S-1) is the most optimal lithofacies. The pore surface fractal dimension (D) was derived by applying the Frenkel–Halsey–Hil (FHH) model to low-temperature N2 adsorption (LTNA) data. The meso-macropore regime shows higher heterogeneity than the micropore regime (since D2 > D1). Both D1 and D2 show a significant positive relation with TOC and carbonate content, a slight negative correlation with quartz content, and no clear link with clay content. In the initial depositional stage of the LMX Formation, a low-energy, stagnant, and strongly reducing environment facilitated the accumulation of siliceous biogenic sediments, leading to the formation of siliceous shale characterized by high paleoproductivity. In the middle to late stages of LMX Formation deposition, increased input of terrigenous clastic material, shallower water depths, and the gradual disruption of the anoxic conditions resulted in diminished paleoproductivity, causing a transition from siliceous shale to a mixed shale lithofacies. Increased TOC and carbonate content enhance pore heterogeneity, with TOC predominantly influencing micropores and carbonates controlling macropores. In contrast, higher quartz content inhibits pore development.

Tugu Air Bangis Beach, located in West Pasaman Regency, has experienced severe coastal erosion caused by wave energy from the Indian Ocean. This condition has resulted in the collapse of several structures along the shoreline and threatens the remaining coastal infrastructure. Mitigation measures are therefore required to maintain shoreline stability and prevent further damage. This study aims to design the layout of coastal protection structures for Tugu Air Bangis Beach using numerical simulations to reduce the impact of wave- and current-induced erosion. The data used in this study include satellite imagery, wind data, tidal elevation data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, and aerial photographs. Tidal flooding (rob) occurred in Padang City and Air Bangis from December 3 to 5, 2021, and the tidal elevation data used for the simulation were obtained from real-time measurements recorded at the Teluk Bayur Station, Padang, between December 1 and 9, 2021. Numerical simulations were performed using the CMS-Wave and CMS-Flow modules in the Surface Water Modelling System (SMS) version 10.1. The simulations were conducted in two stages. The first stage employed the existing structure layout, simulated for 216 hours of model time (equivalent to 36 hours of computer running time). The results indicated that the incoming waves approach the shoreline perpendicularly, suggesting that a breakwater is the most appropriate coastal protection structure. In the second stage, two breakwaters of equal length (200 meters each) and equal distance from the original shoreline (100 meters) were added. The numerical model results showed that this configuration effectively mitigates erosion, as indicated by sediment accumulation along several shoreline segments and the initial formation of a tombolo behind the breakwaters.

Bivalves are a dominant group of benthic invertebrates in freshwater ecosystems playing significant ecological roles in fluvial and marginal lacustrine environments. Despite being active burrowers, the traces left by freshwater bivalve mollusks are less studied and documented than those of their marine counterparts, both in modern and ancient records. In this study, we provide a detailed description of a bivalve ichnofabric primarily characterized by Scalichnus found in fluvial deposits of the Cretaceous Exu Formation, Araripe Basin, northeastern Brazil. Most preserved traces exhibit menisci or irregular concave-upwards laminae at the base of the oval chamber, indicating upward displacement in response to sediment aggradation. Additionally, the presence of stacked Scalichnus in the sandbars suggests that bivalves repositioned themselves upward in the substrate during episodic or seasonal sediment accumulation. In some cases, stacked Scalichnus extend over 60 cm, indicating multiple aggradation events under low deposition rates, which likely allowed the animals to survive these depositional changes. In this context, the preservation of Scalichnus ichnofabrics is associated with variations in sedimentation rates driven by climatic seasonality. These fluctuations likely required the upward repositioning of the bivalves in response to substrate aggradation.

Human-induced changes in sedimentation rates, pollution, and eutrophication significantly transformed the benthic communities in the northern Adriatic Sea during the late Holocene, particularly in recent centuries. Fossil assemblages from sediment cores record these changes but are often affected by stratigraphic condensation and mixing. Here, we show that molluscan, foraminiferal, and ostracod assemblages preserved in a condensed sediment core collected off the Po delta at 31 m water depth, still archive information about the composition of benthic communities prior to anthropogenic changes. All three groups exhibit a similar trend in total abundance (density): a gradual increase peaking in a 10 cm-thick shelly lag (≈ 2 – 6 kyr BP) with millennial time-averaging, followed by a significant decline in the uppermost 5 cm of highstand silts (representing the past 2 kyr BP) with centennial time-averaging. The molluscan assemblage in the shelly lag integrates across several baseline community states. The assemblage mainly comprises shallow-subtidal filter feeders and soft-bottom infauna, with the bivalve Varicorbula gibba and the gastropod Turritellinella tricarinata dominating and increasing in proportional abundance in the highstand silts. The ostracod and benthic foraminiferal assemblages in the shelly lag are dominated by opportunistic species such as Cytheridea neapolitana, Ammonia beccarii, and Haynesina germanica. In contrast, the foraminifera Nonionella sp. and the ostracod Loxoconcha sp. increase in proportional abundance in the highstand silts, characterised by an increase in filter-feeders among the molluscs, infaunalisation and a decrease in epiphytic species. Although an increase in net sediment accumulation primarily causes the decline in fossil density in the uppermost part of the core, upward changes in the relative abundance of species and functional groups reveal a difference between the baseline and impacted community states. Therefore, the time-averaged fossil assemblage in the shelly lag provides a valuable long-term record of an ecosystem in the region before human impact.

ABSTRACT Water diversion and management are essential in irrigation and flood control, where trench weirs are a common method for redirecting water flow. This study introduces a novel approach involving trench weirs with flat bars, aiming to improve structural integrity and hydraulic efficiency. The experimental setup includes a ramp with different angles (θ = 10°, 15°, 20°) on the upstream side of the bottom rack and explores the effect of the ramp’s slope and height on wetted length, flow depth, and diverted discharge through the bottom intake are examined under both free-flow and submerged-flow conditions. Flat bars, when oriented with their thin edge facing the flow in a trench weir, offer a smaller cross-sectional area compared to round bars. This reduced obstruction lowers the head loss across the weir, improved flow uniformity, less sediment deposition, and lower energy loss due to drag. The streamlined profile of flat bars enhances the overall hydraulic efficiency of the weir, ensuring smooth water passage and reducing the likelihood of debris and sediment accumulation. This makes flat bars particularly well suited for trench weirs, where consistent water flow, minimal maintenance, and effective control of flow patterns are critical for optimal performance.

Marsh sill living shorelines are increasingly common nature-based features in coastal estuaries used to mitigate shoreline erosion and enhance coastal resilience. Evaluating the stability of these structures is crucial for shoreline design and coastal management strategies. Although several metrics have been developed to assess the stability of natural tidal marshes, their suitability for the created marshes of living shorelines is still unclear. This research compiles and analyzes data from 18 marsh sill living shorelines in Maryland, USA — nine with continuous sills and nine with segmented sills. We characterize their eco-geomorphic features and hydrodynamics with 15 metrics through both field sampling and remote sensing. Among the 15 metrics, six representative ones are selected to identify the major factors influencing potential marsh boundary degradation in marsh sill living shorelines. Our findings indicate that living shorelines with ponding at the marsh edge have a significantly higher Unvegetated/Vegetated Ratio (p < 0.05) and a lower sediment deposition rate (p < 0.1). Gap/Rock ratio and Relative Exposure Index contribute significantly to differences between living shorelines with and without ponding, explaining 5.46% and 4.41% of the variation, respectively (p < 0.05 for both). Functional marsh width, introduced here as a novel metric, shows a varying relationship with sediment deposition rate depending on whether the deposition rate exceeded or fell below the relative sea level rise. A marsh width of approximately 5–10 meters appears to optimize both cost-effectiveness and sediment accumulation. By integrating data across regional ecosystems, this study advances our understanding of potential degradation processes in living shorelines, offering valuable insights for shoreline design and post-construction maintenance.

River sedimentation has emerged as a critical driver of water scarcity in semi-arid regions, yet most studies neglect sediment accumulation on riverbeds. This study investigates the magnitude, economic implications, and community adaptations to fluvial sedimentation in the Lower Lusitu River Channel, southern Zambia. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining geomorphological field sampling with qualitative focus group discussions across a 15 km downstream channel stretch. Sediment depth was measured at 68 points using a Graduated Sediment Depth (GraSeD) rod, spatially analyzed via the ArcMap 10.4 Inverse Weighted Distance interpolation plugin and further analyzed using polynomial regression. A novel participatory suitability rating of river sand and market data was used to estimate the economic value of sediment. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Results indicate that 2.86 million m3 (4.64 million tons) of sand, approximately equating to 68.34% of the original channel depth, occupied the riverbed, drastically limiting surface water flow. We argue that while the river appears dry from July to December, interstitial water persists throughout, supporting basic household and agricultural needs through 56 community-built wells, pools, and sand reservoirs on the riverbed. Socioeconomically privileged households utilize pumps and plastic container–reinforced wells, whereas poorer households rely on labor-intensive manual fetching. Notwithstanding the fact that interstitial water provides an alternative source of water during the water-stressful period from July to early December, health risks to about 20,000 people in 1,073 households with over 30,000 livestock, potential human–livestock conflicts, and inequities in water access are prevalent. Despite these challenges, the sediment's estimated market value of USD 11.2 million, based on a suitability score of 0.652, presents an underexplored economic opportunity. This study provides empirical evidence that sediment acts as both a barrier to water access and a potential economic asset. It challenges the notion of the Lusitu River as a seasonally dry river by demonstrating sustained subsurface hydrological activity through interstitial water. The findings highlight the potential for policy reform to legalize community-built water infrastructure and regulate sustainable sand extraction. Integrating community resilience strategies with sediment management could enhance water security and livelihoods in similar river systems facing sediment-induced water scarcity and stress.

Abstract For marine antifouling coatings to be practically useful, resistance to both marine fouling organisms and inorganic marine sediments is essential. Amphiphilic copolymer coatings, which integrate hydrophilic and hydrophobic components, are known to impart such dual antifouling properties to solid substrates. In these systems, the hydrophilic component functions as a physical barrier to inhibit biological fouling, while the hydrophobic component prevents the adsorption of marine sediments. Based on this principle, various amphiphilic copolymers have been developed for marine antifouling applications. To effectively minimize both biological adhesion and sediment accumulation, in addition to selecting appropriate hydrophilic and hydrophobic monomers, optimizing their relative composition is crucial. In this study, amphiphilic copolymer coatings composed of sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) and isobornyl methacrylate (IBMA) are synthesized via surface‐initiated atom transfer radical polymerization. Through a systematic investigation, the optimal SBMA‐to‐IBMA ratio is determined to achieve a balanced antifouling performance. Notably, coatings prepared with an SBMA:IBMA feed molar ratio of 1:1 effectively suppress both marine diatom adhesion and sediment adsorption. Surface free energy analysis reveals that superior antifouling performance correlates with a lower surface free energy. These findings underscore the design parameters that should be considered in the development of high‐performance amphiphilic copolymer coatings for marine antifouling applications.

Seagrass banquettes, formed primarily by Posidonia oceanica, play a critical role in coastal protection and sediment dynamics. However, due to their perceived negative impact on seaside tourism, local authorities frequently remove these accumulations using heavy machinery, contributing to beach erosion. This study surveyed a 100 km stretch of the southern Catalan coastline to map the spatial distribution of Posidonia oceanica banquettes and to investigate their relationship with adjacent submerged seagrass meadows. The results indicate that banquette development is most prevalent in meadows with a depth of less than 5 m, under local wave conditions with significant wave heights ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 m. Pixavaques Beach was selected as a case study to evaluate the physical characteristics and ecological functions of banquettes. Granulometric and permeability analyses were conducted on sand and banquette samples, alongside in situ penetration resistance measurements. The results indicate that banquettes located near the shoreline accumulate around 12 times less sediment than those located further inland, primarily due to their continuous exposure to wave action, which produces a natural washing and removal of sediments. The mean permeability values of the banquette were 16.41 cms− 1 in the zones closest to the shoreline and 0.32 cms− 1 at a distance of 1.5 m inland. The values obtained for these samples were higher than those measured in bare sand (0.05 cms− 1). The maximum in situ penetration resistance values were recorded as 1.84 MPa in bare sand and 1.68 MPa in the banquettes. The highest values measured within the banquettes indicate zones of greater sediment accumulation. Additionally, the artificial nourishment implemented to counteract erosion from banquette removal has led to increased grain size and steeper beach profiles. These findings highlight the protective function of banquettes and support alternative, sustainable management strategies, such as repositioning or partial retention, that balance ecological integrity with the demands of coastal tourism.

The goal of the paper is a qualitative evaluation of the intensity of the areal distribution of compressive stresses, which is a geodynamic factor in the Shamakhi-Gobustan region. At the same time, we study their influence on plicative and disjunctive dislocations, as well as mud volcanoes. Morphological characteristics of local uplifts developed in the region were studied, based on the results of studies. Isomorph maps were constructed reflecting the territorial distribution of compressive stresses within the stratigraphic units of the Mesozoic for the northern zone of the region, distribution of compressive stresses along the Maykop Series for the central zone and distribution of compressive stresses along the section of the Productive Series (Lower Pliocene) for the southern zones. The isomorph map is constructed according to the top of the Productive Series, the maximum difference in the values of the length-to-width ratio is 1.5. The studies revealed that the Shamakhi-Gobustan synclinorium is characterized by an intense impact of compressive stresses on its sedimentary cover. This is evidenced by the development of well-defined folded forms here, complicated quite often by reverse-thrust dislocations, as well as nappe structures. In addition, 3D models of these zones were also built, reflecting the effects of compressive stresses on structures from the earth’s surface. 3D models reflected morphology of uplifts on the Earth’s surface. The models are built by using the Surfer and Paint programs. From the above analysis of the compiled graphic material, it can be concluded that within the Shamakhi-Gobustan synclinorium, compressive stresses play a significant role not only in the formation of nappes and thrusts, but also in the formation of local uplifts, mud volcanoes and natural oil and gas seepages. Mud volcanoes played a significant role in the formation of oil and gas deposits along synclinoria. The channels of these volcanoes are the paths for both the creation and destruction of oil deposits. The stratigraphic position of the roots of mud volcanoes indicates the location of the oil-and-gas kitchen at great depths of the lithosphere. At the same time, their influence on fold formation increases with stratigraphic depth. Based on the distribution of compressive stresses and manifestations of mud volcanism in the synclinorium, where large-scale studies have not been conducted, it is possible to predict the oil and gas potential of the territory. Compressive stresses arising in the region play a key role in the formation of its structural-tectonic plan, the dispersion of fluids, the re-formation of various types of deposits, the accumulation of sediments containing organic matter along the region, the conversion and storage of the latter into hydrocarbons, the formation of structures suitable for the accumulation of oil and gas, and the development of mud volcanism.

ABSTRACT Sand dams are small, reinforced barriers constructed across seasonal and ephemeral streams which trap water in sediments deposited. For these reservoirs to provide sustainable and dependable water supplies or valuable sand for other purposes, they should primarily fill with coarse sand rather than fine sediments. Excessive accumulation of fine sediments in sand dam reservoirs limits recharge and recoverable water. We describe a novel approach to preventing the accumulation of fine sediments in sand dam reservoirs by geomorphic management of reservoir sedimentation. We propose building sand dams with outlets at the foot of the dam to selectively trap coarse sediments (&gt; 0.125 mm; Rouse number = 2.5) across a range of flows and sediment transport rates. An optimal outlet had an “Eiffel Tower” shape which maintains the desired Rouse number, ensuring finer particles will pass out of the reservoir remaining suspended, while coarser particles settle. HEC‐RAS simulations confirm that these designs promote uniform coarse sediment deposition within the reservoir and perform effectively, with minimal deviation from the target Rouse number, with a mean squared error (MSE) of less than 1%. Alternative rectangular and circular base cutouts which can be readily made by embedding culvert pipe also performed well across a wide range of flows. These shapes are simpler to construct and maintain greater structural integrity than the more complex Eiffel Tower (ET) shape. While the ET shape gave the most consistent performance in our tests, simpler designs may offer a better balance between performance, ease of construction, and strength.