Abstract Illegal hunting of migratory birds across the Mediterranean region is a serious international conservation issue with population-level impacts. We analysed photographs posted on social media platforms to assess the bird species illegally targeted in Lebanon. During 2011–2023 we reviewed 1,844 photographs publicly posted by poachers on Facebook and Instagram. In these images we identified 212 bird species, of which 94% are legally protected. Many are species of conservation concern, with 19 listed as threatened or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List and 33% experiencing population declines in Europe. The five bird species with the most individuals illegally killed were the barn swallow Hirundo rustica, blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, European bee-eater Merops apiaster, Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus and ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana. Raptors and other large soaring birds were particularly prevalent, with 35 species of raptor (particularly the European honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, common kestrel Falco tinnunculus, short-toed snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus and Levant sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes) as well as storks, pelicans and cranes. Protected mammals were also posted as trophies, including the Near Threatened striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena. Poachers were present in 44% of photographs and were clearly identifiable 89% of the time, showing little concern about posting illegal activities on publicly accessible social media platforms. Our study is the first to use social media as a tool for assessing illegal hunting activities in Lebanon. We discuss both the use and limitations of this approach, as well as the ways in which social media can be utilized by law enforcement, to promote legal hunting or hunting alternatives and improve conservation education.

The short report provides information on breeding cases of Shikra (Accipiter badius) and Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) on the Mangistau (Mangyshlk) Peninsula. Since 2019, the Shikra has been observed breeding in the Aktau Botanical Garden every year. In 2024, the first reliable case of breeding the Levant Sparrowhawk there was recorded.

Buzuluk pine forest is a unique pine massif with a total area of 111,118 hectares, which is located entirely in the steppe biome on the border of the Orenburg and Samara regions, in the southeastern part of the Russian Plain. This report provides some information about threatened and endangered raptors of the Buzuluk pine forest for a relatively long period of time. It uses data by scientist and ornithologist E.P. Knorre collected between 1928 and 1941, present time observations carried out since 2000 to the present, and published data by other researchers who have visited Buzuluk pine forest starting from the beginning of the 21st century. Most observations by E.P. Knorre were associated with the Pine Barrens Experimental Forestry in the Orenburg region, where “Buzuluk pine forest” Nature Reserve (10,503 hectares) existed at the time. In his unpublished monumental report “Qualitative inventory of birds and animals of the Buzuluk Pine Forest State Nature Reserve”, discovered in the archive of the current “Buzuluk Pine Forest” National Park relatively recently, E.P. Knorre listed the following raptor species found in Buzuluk Pine Forest: Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (breeding) Red-Footed Falcon Falco vespertinus (breeding) Eurasian hobby Falco subbuteo (breeding) Saker Falcon Falco cherrug (breeding) Osprey Pandion haliaetus (highly likely breeding) European Honey-Buzzard Pernis apivorus (breeding) Black Kite Milvus migrans (breeding) White-Tailed Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (breeding) Short-Toed Snake-Eagle Circaetus gallicus (breeding) Western Marsh-Harrier Circus aeruginosus (breeding) Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus (breeding) Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus (breeding) Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (breeding) Eurasian Buzzard Buteo buteo (breeding) Rough-Legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus (wintering) Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga (breeding) Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca (breeding) Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (breeding) Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops (breeding) Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo (breeding) Tawny Owl Strix aluco (breeding) Ural Owl Strix uralensis (breeding) Little Owl Athene noctua (common in autumn, the status is unclear) Northern Long-Eared Owl Asio otus (breeding) Short-Eared Owl Asio flammeus (breeding) Since the beginning of the 21st century, occurrence of most raptor species listed in report by E.P. Knorre was confirmed in the modern period of observations in Buzuluk Pine Forest. Nevertheless, such raptor species as Common Kestrel, Red-Footed Falcon, Saker Falcon, Osprey, Short-Toed Snake-Eagle, and Pallid Harrier were not recorded. Western Marsh-Harrier that once bred here was not found on the internal water lakes and swamps of the Buzuluk Pine Forest. As for the Strigiformes, Tawny Owl, Ural Owl and Northern Long- Eared Owl were recorded more frequently today. The previously breeding Eurasian Scops-Owl and Short-Eared Owl in the inner sections of the pine forest were not recently found here. Present-day breeding of Eurasian Eagle Owl requires additional confirmation. The finds of Little Owl, included in the Knorre’s report as autumn migrant, have not been confirmed yet. At the same time, new raptor species have been registered in the Buzuluk Pine Forest. These include Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus; single individual was observed in summer: Barabashin, 2001), Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus; a pair of birds in May: our data), Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus; single bird in May: our data), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes; single bird in May: Morozov, Kornev, 2009). According to our observations, the wellbeing of such species as Greater Spotted Eagle, White-Tailed eagle, Golden Eagle, Short-Eared Owl, Western Marsh-Harrier, Montagu’s Harrier was influenced by the ongoing climate warming in the Buzuluk Pine Forest area, which was evident from raising average annual air temperatures and decreasing precipitation. According to observations by E.P. Knorre, another serious limiting factor in the past was transformation of the forest under the influence of extensive fires and uncontrolled logging of trees. Logging and fires in pre-Soviet times led to appearance of huge empty spaces, which were then penetrated by steppe vegetation from adjacent steppe areas. Steppe formation was responsible for the appearance of such species as Common Kestrel, Red-Footed Falcon, Pallid Harrier, Eastern Imperial Eagle across inner forest areas for some time. In the 1950s, the mass pine tree plantings and increased fire control led to restoration of the forest integrity and at the same time to disappearance of Common Kestrel, Red-Footed Falcon, Pallid Harrier, relocation of breeding pairs of Eastern Imperial Eagle to outer rims of the forest.

Egypt is an important pass for the soaring birds’ migration, as it is situated on the mainland connection between the Eurasian and African landmasses that connects breeding grounds in Eurasia with wintering zones in Africa. In the current study, the spring migration of soaring birds was studied along a narrow corridor “bottleneck site” located within the Red Sea/Rift Valley bird migration flyway, Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Over a period of four weeks from April 19th to 17th of May 2019, 89949 soaring birds of 27 species were counted during an eight-hour daily observation window. In total, 47511 raptors of 24 species were recorded. The most common were the group of Levant sparrowhawk “Accipter brevipes”, European honey buzzard “Pernis apivorus”, and Northern steppe buzzard “Buteo buteo vulpinus” forming 33.16%, 32.08%, and 24.91% of all raptors, respectively; while combined black kite “Milvus migrans”, lesser spotted eagle “Aquila pomarine”, steppe eagle “Aquila nipalensis”, short-toed eagle “Circaetus gallicus”, booted eagle “Aquila pennata”, and Egyptian vulture “Neophron percnopterus” recorded more than 6% of the raptor assemblage. In addition, 15 greater spotted eagle “Aquila clanga”, 6 pallid harrier “Circus macrourus”, and 5 Eurasian griffon vulture “Gyps fulvus” were recorded during the observations. Other soaring birds were recorded during the study-time, the most common were: 36700 white stork “Ciconia Ciconia”, 4230 great white pelican “Pelecanus onocrotalus”, and 1500 black stork “Ciconia nigra”.

Egypt is an important pass for the soaring birds’ migration, as it is situated on the mainland connection between the Eurasian and African landmasses that connects breeding grounds in Eurasia with wintering zones in Africa. In the current study, the spring migration of soaring birds was studied along a narrow corridor “bottleneck site” located within the Red Sea/Rift Valley bird migration flyway, Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Over a period of four weeks from April 19th to 17th of May 2019, 89949 soaring birds of 27 species were counted during an eight-hour daily observation window. In total, 47511 raptors of 24 species were recorded. The most common were the group of Levant sparrowhawk “Accipter brevipes”, European honey buzzard “Pernis apivorus”, and Northern steppe buzzard “Buteo buteo vulpinus” forming 33.16%, 32.08%, and 24.91% of all raptors, respectively; while combined black kite “Milvus migrans”, lesser spotted eagle “Aquila pomarine”, steppe eagle “Aquila nipalensis”, short-toed eagle “Circaetus gallicus”, booted eagle “Aquila pennata”, and Egyptian vulture “Neophron percnopterus” recorded more than 6% of the raptor assemblage. In addition, 15 greater spotted eagle “Aquila clanga”, 6 pallid harrier “Circus macrourus”, and 5 Eurasian griffon vulture “Gyps fulvus” were recorded during the observations. Other soaring birds were recorded during the study-time, the most common were: 36700 white stork “Ciconia Ciconia”, 4230 great white pelican “Pelecanus onocrotalus”, and 1500 black stork “Ciconia nigra”.

ABSTRACTCapsule: A questionnaire identified 1196 raptor monitoring species schemes within 236 monitoring programmes across 37 countries.Aims: To assess the level of monitoring of status/trends of raptors across Europe, to produce a web-based inventory of activities.Methods: A questionnaire promoted by voluntary national coordinators assessed monitoring coverage, focusing on breeding populations.Results: One thousand one hundred and ninety-six species schemes (236 monitoring programmes; 90% active in 2012) were reported from 37 countries. Sixty per cent of schemes were of over 10 years duration and nine countries ran schemes of over 40 years duration. Nineteen species had at least one scheme in 10 or more countries, and 15 species had schemes that ran for over 10 years. Thirteen species had breeding monitoring schemes in over 50% of countries where they breed, including widespread species (e.g. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus) and localized species (e.g. Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus). Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus, Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes and Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus had the least representative coverage, and four rare species had no coverage. Coverage was more representative in north and west Europe than further south and east. Coverage was more representative for widespread species and those with more favourable conservation status.Conclusions: Large potential exists to enhance reporting on status/trends, ecotoxicology analyses and volunteer-based monitoring at the pan-European scale. National coordinators provide an ideal network to develop and disseminate best practice guidance across Europe.

Abstract In migrant Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) at Eilat, Israel, we noted that juvenile males had two different morphs – the one described to date in literature; and a second, previously undescribed morph, with femalelike barring on the chest and flanks interspersed with tear-shaped elongated spots, giving an overall female-like appearance. Here we forward the hypothesis that explain the evolutionary consequences for the female-like plumage of juvenile males as that of intra-specific sex mimicry developed to avoid intra-specific predation by the larger females.

Migrating raptors and black storks (Ciconia nigra) were studied in Dadia National Park, Greece, during spring 2003–2005. Vantage points and transects were used to evaluate magnitude, phenology, local variation and direction. We observed 23 species and 2030 individuals, including 715 common buzzards (Buteo buteo), 547 black storks and 136 short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus). Species-specific migration peaks were detected, starting in the second half of March, e.g. common buzzard, short-toed eagle, black stork, and ending early May, e.g. Levant sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus), honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus). Most raptors were observed in the Evros valley, which may function as a migration corridor. The average direction of passing raptors was north. Species’ proportions and phenology in the study area were similar to those in neighbouring Bosphorus and Marmara Flyways. Further migration monitoring should be established in the area, which will provide important information not least to inform wind farm development location.

Abstract On May 1 5, 201 2 an individual of Levant sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes was observed at the southern edge of Trebišov town in eastern Slovakia, situated in the Východoslovenská rovina Lowlands. The sighting was documented with photographs. This is the first recorded occurrence of this species in terms of the bird fauna of Slovakia. The present article describes in detail its distribution and breeding in eastern Hungary and western Romania, based on an isolated population in the Pannonian Basin at the north-western edge of its breeding range. The occurrence of the Levant sparrowhawk beyond the boundaries of its breeding range and outside the Pannonian Basin consists mostly of rare movements by young individuals (northern Moravia, central and northern Poland) far north of its breeding range. An adult male was observed in south-eastern Poland in the pre-breeding period, and in Slovakia an adult female was observed in the breeding period.

Counts of migrating raptors at Batumi, Georgia, revealed the eastern Black Sea coast to form one of the most important bottlenecks for raptor migration during autumn in the Eurasian-African migration system. Totals for 10 species (European Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus, Black Kite Milvus migrans, Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus, Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina, Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, Booted Eagle Aquila pennata) exceeded 1% of their estimated world population. We compare the observed abundance of each species to estimates of the presumed source populations in European Russia. Counts of most species involved only a limited subset of these source populations, except for European Honey-buzzard and Lesser Spotted Eagle, which were more numerous than predicted. This could be due to inaccurate population estimates or because birds from NE Europe or W Asia are also using this migration route.

Highways as flyways: Time and energy optimization in migratory Levant Sparrowhawk

Examination of blood smears obtained from raptors trapped while on migration at Eilat, Israel, demonstrated Plasmodium infection in Accipiter brevipes and Buteo buteo. The following species are described, from A. brevipes: Plasmodium alloelongatum n. sp., P. accipiteris n. sp. and from B. buteo: P. buteonis n. sp. and Plasmodium sp. for which we lack sufficient data for adequate species description. Overall prevalence of infection with Plasmodium spp. was very low: among 38 examined A. brevipes 5% and among 56 B. buteo 3.6%.

ABSTRACTAims Different aspects of soaring‐bird migration are influenced by weather. However, the relationship between weather and the onset of soaring‐bird migration, particularly in autumn, is not clear. Although long‐term migration counts are often unavailable near the breeding areas of many soaring birds in the western Palaearctic, soaring‐bird migration has been systematically monitored in Israel, a region where populations from large geographical areas converge. This study tests several fundamental hypotheses regarding the onset of migration and explores the connection between weather, migration onset and arrival at a distant site.Location Globally gridded meteorological data from the breeding areas in north‐eastern Europe were used as predictive variables in relation to the arrival of soaring migrants in Israel.Methods Inverse modelling was used to study the temporal and spatial influence of weather on initiation of migration based on autumn soaring‐bird migration counts in Israel. Numerous combinations of migration duration and temporal influence of meteorological variables (temperature, sea‐level pressure and precipitable water) were tested with different models for meteorological sensitivity.Results The day of arrival in Israel of white storks, honey buzzards, Levant sparrowhawks and lesser spotted eagles was significantly and strongly related to meteorological conditions in the breeding area days or even weeks before arrival in Israel. The cumulative number of days or cumulative value above or below a meteorological threshold performed significantly better than other models tested. Models provided reliable estimates of migration duration for each species.Main conclusions The meteorological triggers of migration at the breeding grounds differed between species and were related to deteriorating living conditions and deteriorating migratory flight conditions. Soaring birds are sensitive to meteorological triggers at the same period every year and their temporal response to weather appears to be constrained by their annual routine.

Visual migration surveys, especially at bottlenecks, can be a vital tool to evaluate population fluctuations in environmentally sensitive species. Raptors are considered to be important bioindicators that can help identify environmental catastrophes. Substantial proportions of the global population of Steppe Eagles (Aquila nipalensis) and Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) concentrate at Eilat, Israel, during the spring and autumn migrations, but counts from seven autumn and seven spring migration surveys indicate a constant decline in Steppe Eagle numbers. Further, the number of juveniles observed in these counts dropped steadily from 30% in the early 1980s, to 1.4% in 2000. The numbers observed at Eilat are well below the range of the numerical fluctuations observed in previous surveys. In Levant Sparrowhawks, no decline in total numbers is evident, but a significant change in the adult to juvenile age ratio was noted between the population trapped in the 1980s and that sampled in the late 1990s. The cumulative evidence of the decrease in the total numbers of Steppe Eagles, the decreasing proportion of subadults within the population, and the decrease in adult:young ratio in the Levant Sparrowhawk population trapped leads us to suggest that the Chernobyl accident on 26 April 1986 may have negatively affected wildlife populations, not only to the west with the spread of the radio-active plume, but farther east than previously assumed.

We quantified the extent of molt in Steppe Buzzards (Buteo buteo vulpinus), Marsh Harriers (Circus aeruginosus), Levant Sparrowhawks (Accipiter brevipes), and Eurasian Sparrowhawks (A. nisus) caught during spring migration 1985–1988 in Elat, southern Israel. Ten percent of yearling Steppe Buzzards (58 of 550) and four percent of yearling Marsh Harriers (3 of 77) were actively molting their remiges while on migration. These findings are contrary to suggestions that birds do not molt their flight feathers during migration when they should avoid extra energy expenditure and maintain flight performance. Active molt of primaries and secondaries, however, was not found among adult buzzards and harriers, or in any individual of the two Accipiter species. Molt strategies may be related to differences in flight mode during migration between species that primarily soar (buzzards and harriers) and species that flap more (sparrowhawks). Body condition was not related to the state of molt. This, and the fact that only yearling birds were in active molt of remiges, suggest that a delay in arrival on the breeding grounds may be a significant cost of molt during spring migration.

The Levant sparrow hawk (Accipiter brevipes) is a typical raptor with reversed sexual size dimorphism wherein the female is larger than the male. Here, we present the factors contributing to biometric differences between the age and sex classes. Starting from 1984, 1164 Levant sparrow hawks were captured and banded in the area immediately to the north of Elat, Israel. Comparing mean values, feather-dependent characters were 6.6–7.3% larger in adult females than in adult males, and 6.2–6.8% larger in second year females than in second year males. Differences were greater for culmen and hallux length and for body mass. We found wing cord and body mass to be the parameters most efficient in separating sex or age classes. Upon performing discriminant analyses on our data set, we found that hallux length varied independently between males and females, irrespective of the age of the bird. Our data establish that the Levant sparrow hawk is the least dimorphic of the European Accipiter species but has a sex-speci...

Migratory flight strategies of Levant sparrowhawks: time or energy minimization?

The comparison of flight styles and flight parameters of migrating raptors in Israel revealed the following. (1) Climbing rate in thermal circling did not differ between species, indicating that chiefly the strength of thermal updrafts determined the climbing rate and that morphological features were less relevant. (2) In interthermal gliding, air speed was positively and gliding angle negatively related to the species' average body mass. Heavier species glided faster and had smaller gliding angles. (3) In soaring and gliding flight, cross‐country speed relative to the air was positively related to the species' body mass; it was obviously the result of the gliding ability increasing with body mass. (4) Eagles and buzzards used soaring and gliding flight for more than 95% of the observation time. Additional soaring in a straight line whilst gliding was extensively used by the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis, Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina and Booted Eagle Hieraætus pennatus and even more frequently by the resident species, the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus and Shorttoed Eagle Circaetus gallicus. Smaller species, such as the Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, harriers (Circus sp.) and small falcons (Falco sp.). showed the highest proportion of flapping and gliding flight (9–33%). (5) In a comparison of the flight parameters and proportions of flight styles, a cluster analysis distinguished two main groups: The first consisted of Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus, Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, Levant Sparrowhawk and small falcons; their flight behaviour was characterized by both the high proportion of flapping and the low gliding performance. The second group comprised the typical soaring migrants: Steppe Eagle, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Booted Eagle, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus, Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus and Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, and they had very similar flight behaviour and were closely clustered. The Black Kite Milvus migrans and Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus were intermediate between typical soarers and flappers. The two resident species, Griffon Vulture and Short‐toed Eagle, were grouped separately from the soaring migrants.

The magnitude and timing of the autumn and spring migrations of 35 species of medium‐and large‐sized raptors, White Pelicans Pelicanus onocrotalus and White Storks Ciconia ciconia were studied in Israel. Observations were carried out from the ground by a line of observers covering most of the width of Israel across the line of migration and by radar. There was a high correlation between the counts obtained by ground observers and by radar. On average, about half a million raptors (mainly Lesser Spotted Eagles Aquila po‐marina, Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus and Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes), 250,000 White Storks and 70,000 White Pelicans passed during autumn, and about a million raptors (mainly Honey Buzzards, Steppe Buzzards Buteo vulpinus, Steppe Eagles Aquila nipalensis and Black Kites Milvus migrans) and 450,000 White Storks passed during spring. Peak numbers were higher–over a million raptors and half a million White Storks. There was high interyear variation in the number of migrants recorded during the study, probably caused by weather and counting efforts. For some species, the whole world (Lesser Spotted Eagle and Levant Sparrowhawk) or Palaearctic (White Pelican) population passes over Israel during migration, allowing an estimate of the world populations of these species. Mean dates of arrival of most raptors are highly predictable, with confidence limits ranging between 1.5 and 5.5 days. The migration periods of White Storks and White Pelicans are longer and their mean day of appearance is less predictable (confidence limits range from 4.2 to 13.8 days). During autumn, 90% of the migrating populations of nocking species, such as Levant Sparrowhawk, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Honey Buzzard and Red‐footed Falcon Falco vespertinus, pass within 13, 15, 16 and 18 days, respectively, while nonflocking species, such as Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus and Short‐toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, generally take twice as long to pass. Similar passage periods were recorded in spring. For most species, the autumn migration period was longer than the spring migration period, probably because in autumn adults move before the young birds. Three factors affected the timing and spread of the migration wave: age at first breeding, diet and size of the breeding area.

Flight paths of visually identified Levant Sparrowhawks Accipiter brevipes on autumn migration were analysed with a tracking radar in the Arava Valley, Israel. This time of the year there are no significant numbers of other species with a similar wing‐beat pattern. This wing‐beat pattern was found not only in daytime but also frequently at night. It is suggested that the Levant Sparrowhawk uses two strategies of migration: (1) soaring and gliding to reduce energy consumption; (2) flapping flight to reduce time spent on migration. The latter may be more important towards the end of the migratory season and/or when birds have become separated from the main migratory stream.