Rape Myth Acceptance Research Articles

I Blame Therefore It Was: Rape Myth Acceptance, Victim Blaming, and Memory Reconstruction.

We examined the causal order of relationships between rape myth acceptance (RMA), victim blaming, and memory reconstruction. In Study 1, RMA-congruent memory (or alternatively, victim blaming) mediated the relationship between RMA and victim blaming (memory reconstruction). In Study 2, similar relationships emerged between RMA, victim blaming, and memory reconstruction. Although no mediation of RMA occurred in Study 2 independently, a mini meta-analysis of Studies 1 and 2 data replicated both patterns of mediation observed in Study 1. In Study 3, memory accuracy for neutral details of a rape scenario was unrelated to RMA. Manipulating memory to be more (vs. less) RMA congruent had no effect on victim blaming (Study 4), although manipulating perceived victim blameworthiness (Studies 5 and 6) produced RMA-congruent memory reconstruction when the victim was more (vs. less) blameworthy. The results suggest that, via victim blaming, RMA motivates a memory reconstruction process that explains and justifies victim blaming after the fact.

Reassessing balance: News coverage of Donald Trump’s Access Hollywood scandal before and during #metoo

Sexual abuse became an important part of news coverage in the months leading up to Donald Trump’s presidency and continued to dominate news cycles with the emergence of the #metoo movement. Yet, it remains to be seen whether the increasing amount of stories about sexual abuse have actually advanced social justice. We conducted content and textual analyses of newspaper, cable television, and online coverage of the Access Hollywood scandal before and during the #metoo movement ( N = 1890) to understand how the journalistic objectivity norm of balance via issue dualism influenced reporting on sexual abuse. Television and right-leaning media had the highest levels of rape myth acceptance in their coverage for both time periods. The use of issue dualism advantaged Trump as Bill Clinton and other prominent accused men shifted focus away from Trump and largely overlooked the women coming forward against Trump. The objectivity norm of balance reduced and politicized this complex issue, as well as gave power to Trump’s retaliation while minimizing the serious accusations that have been brought against him.

Authoritarianism, Social Dominance, Religiosity and Ambivalent Sexism as Predictors of Rape Myth Acceptance

Authoritarianism, Social Dominance, Religiosity and Ambivalent Sexism as Predictors of Rape Myth Acceptance

The effectiveness of the Bringing in the Bystander™ program among first-year students at a religiously-affiliated liberal arts college

To address sexual assault, many universities are implementing Bringing in the Bystander™ (BitB) training, a prevention program that aims to improve participants’ bystander self-efficacy and reduce rape myth acceptance. Although growing evidence supports the efficacy of BitB, data primarily have been amassed at one large public university, the University of New Hampshire, limiting the generalizability of intervention effectiveness. To address this gap, we made modifications to training structure and assessed BitB effectiveness among first-year students at a private Jesuit Catholic liberal arts college in Massachusetts. Using a within-subjects pre-/post-test survey design, we found that students’ (N = 164) bystander self-efficacy significantly increased and rape myth acceptance significantly decreased following training. Results indicate that BitB implementation is feasible and effective on a new campus despite modest modifications to training delivery and despite differences in religious affiliation, median income, and class size between the two campuses.

Predictors of College Students’ Likelihood to Report Hypothetical Rape: Rape Myth Acceptance, Perceived Barriers to Reporting, and Self-Efficacy

Rape myth acceptance (RMA), perceived barriers, and self-efficacy were examined as predictors of likelihood to report different types of rape to law enforcement among 409 undergraduates. Participants had lower likelihood to report incapacitated compared to physically forced rape. Men had lower reporting likelihood than women for rape perpetrated by the same and opposite sex and were more likely to perceive several barriers. RMA and perceived barriers predicted a lower likelihood to report several types of rape. Among men, higher self-efficacy predicted increased reporting likelihood. Targeting RMA and decreasing perceived barriers is imperative to increase college students’ likelihood to report rape to local and campus law enforcement.

"Men Cannot Be Raped": Correlates of Male Rape Myth Acceptance.

Despite the increased attention surrounding rape and sexual assault, research on male victims remains limited, particularly concerning the adherence to rape myths. Rape myths, which are false beliefs that are widely accepted, contribute to the justification and normalization of sexual violence by offenders and focus on the actions and behavior of victims while minimizing the harm. Addressing the gaps in the research, the present study examines how demographics, personal experiences with rape (i.e., being or knowing a survivor), and belief systems relate to rape myth adherence for male victims. The sample consisted of 1,220 adults in the United States who completed an online survey via Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). The number of myths endorsed ranged from 0 to 21 with a mean of 4.1 (SD = 4.7). In the final model of the hierarchical regression, results indicate rape myth acceptance was positively associated with individuals who were male, older, and more likely to believe males falsely report rapes to law enforcement at a high rate. Of the gender and sexuality attitudinal scales, individuals who adhered to female rape myths, held negative attitudes toward homosexuals, accepted traditional sexual double standards, and believed in traditional social gender roles were more likely to adhere to male rape myths. Findings demonstrate that rape myths operate similarly for male and female victims. Sexual assault programming and interventions need to address that males can be victims of sexual violence and the myths associated with male victimization in addition to generally challenging the adverse belief systems that serve as the foundation for rape myths generally.

Perception of a Perpetrator as a Successful Person Predicts Decreased Moral Judgment of a Rape Case and Labeling it as Rape.

Rape cases of celebrities and other influential figures have caught the public eye in recent years. Following the media attention to these cases, people made strong judgments either believing or doubting the victims. Even though some of these men were convicted, they tended to receive little jail time and continued to enjoy people’s sympathy, as in the case of the Hungarian national swimming-coach. We examined whether opinions about the coach’s rape were affected by rape myth acceptance (RMA) and the perception of the perpetrator as a successful person. We conducted two online surveys to reveal this connection at two different points. The case was still somewhat ambiguous at the time of data collection for Study 1 (N = 870) because the perpetrator denied it. However, Study 2 (N = 105) took place after the perpetrator admitted his crime. In line with our predictions, we found that in the uncertain context of Study 1, RMA and the perception of the perpetrator as a successful person predicted whether respondents labeled the incident as rape, and how the perpetrator’s reactions were judged morally. In the certain condition of Study 2, RMA continued to predict moral judgments, but it no longer predicted whether the incident was labeled as rape. These findings showed that in the evaluation of a rape case of a popular and powerful person, perception of the perpetrator’s success can affect the overall evaluation of the case based on the level of RMA. However, such a connection is more pronounced when there are still ambiguities regarding the rape. We therefore suggest that both RMA and the effect of the overall perception of the perpetrator are considered in rape prevention programs, because rape cases rarely appear as certain and unambiguous in the media.

Effects of Stereotypical Sex Role Movies on Adolescents and Emerging Adults

This experiment examines the effect of movies portraying stereotypical sex roles on sexual gender stereotypes and rape myths among adolescents and emerging adults (N = 116). After watching a stereotypical sex role movie or a control movie, participants completed a survey on their acceptance of sexual stereotypes and rape myths. Results showed that male and female adolescents who watched the stereotyped movie reported more acceptance of gender stereotypes and rape myths. No effects were found among emerging adults. Social learning theory and media priming are used in discussing these findings.

Trauma-Informed Police Responses to Rape Victims

ABSTRACTRape victims can benefit from trauma-informed approaches when reporting rape to police. Police interviewing skill can prevent survivor re-victimization while eliciting useful crime statements. However, rape myth acceptance and police culture may pose obstacles to a trauma-informed approach. Client empowerment, demystification, trigger reduction, and expressed concern for victim safety can be implemented by police agencies. Interdisciplinary collaboration, combating sexual harassment, gender balancing, emotional debriefing of officers, accountability to victims, new reporting methods, and advanced training protocols are elements of a trauma-informed approach.

Cornered at a Bar: How Victim Clothing, Alcohol Intake, and Relationship With Bystander Impact Intention to Help.

While a negative relationship between rape myth acceptance (RMA) and bystander behavior is established, the specific myths associated with bystander behavior are not well understood. In Study 1, we presented 260 participants with vignettes manipulating clothing and alcohol intake of a woman victim to see how it affected intention to help. In Study 2, we presented 247 participants with similar vignettes, manipulating alcohol intake and relationship with the bystander. Contrary to previous research on RMA, participants were significantly more willing to intervene if the woman was intoxicated. Intervention also depended upon the participants' relationship to the woman: stranger or acquaintance.

Understanding sexual consent and nonconsensual sexual experiences in undergraduate women: The role of identification and rape myth acceptance

The current study examined how nonconsensual sexual experiences (NSE) and the self-identification of such experiences as sexual assault play a role in the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual consent attitudes. Undergraduate women ( N = 296) completed measures on sexual consent attitudes, their sexual experiences, and rape myth acceptance. Participants were categorized into three groups: those with no NSEs, those with NSEs who identify them as sexual assault (identifiers), and those with NSEs who do not identify them as sexual assault (non-identifiers). Multiple regression analyses to test the moderating effects of group membership on the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual consent attitudes were conducted. Results indicated that non-identifiers reported less positive attitudes toward establishing consent and more indirect behavioural approaches to consent than both identifiers and those with no NSE histories. Greater rape myth acceptance was significantly related to a lack of perceived behavioural control and less positive attitudes toward establishing consent in identifiers and those with no NSEs, as well as less awareness and discussion around consent in those with no NSEs. Conversely, rape myth acceptance was not significantly associated with any consent attitudes in non-identifiers. The findings suggest that NSE identification, or a lack of identification of NSEs as sexual assault, is significantly related to sexual consent attitudes that are independent of rape myth acceptance. These findings are discussed in terms of sexual violence education and prevention and future research considerations.

Prior Sexual Relationship, Gender and Sexual Attitudes Affect the Believability of a Hypothetical Sexual Assault Vignette

This study investigated the effects of contextual and individual difference features on perceptions of believability of a hypothetical sexual assault victim’s report. Undergraduates read a vignette describing an alleged sexual assault in which the victim was either poor or wealthy and rated the woman’s believability. In both socioeconomic status conditions, participants then learned that the victim and perpetrator had a previous, consensual sexual relationship and consumed alcohol at the time of the assault and provided a second and third believability rating. Believability ratings decreased as additional information was provided. Men, participants with greater rape myth acceptance, and men with lower levels of rape empathy rated the victim’s believability as significantly lower than women, participants with less rape myth acceptance, and men with higher rape empathy. Based on study findings, we provide recommendations for college campuses and law enforcement groups working with sexual assault victims.

The Effects of Gender-Blind Sexism on Rape Myth Acceptance: Results From a Nationally Representative Study.

This study uses a diverse sample that is nationally representative with regards to race and gender (N = 2,000) in an attempt to replicate and confirm Stoll, Lilley, and Pinter's previous finding that gender-blind sexism is correlated with rape myth acceptance. As in the original study, we hypothesized that higher scores on the Gender-Blind Sexism Inventory (GBSI) would be predictive of higher scores on Stoll et al.'s Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMA). Gender-blind sexism builds on previous models of contemporary sexism such as hostile and benevolent sexism, modern sexism, and neosexism. It also represents an extension of racialized social system theory that explores the ways contemporary sexism operates in an era of post-racial and post-gender politics via four frames: abstract liberalism, naturalization, cultural sexism, and minimization of sexism. Unlike in the original study, however, our sample also allowed us to control for scores on the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), the Modern Sexism Scale (MS), and the Neosexism Scale (NS) in testing this relationship. Our analysis confirmed the hypothesis that gender-blind sexism is predictive of higher rape myth acceptance among participants. Moreover, this study indicates that the GBSI offers additional value over the ASI, MS, and NS, as it was the only index of sexism tested that revealed gender-group differences within its relationship to RMA. Compared to men, women's acceptance of rape myths was more responsive to shifts in the GBSI. We discuss the implications of our findings in terms of rape and sexual assault prevention and policy. We also provide some suggestions for how the GBSI could be used in future studies.

Sexism, rape myths and feminist identification explain gender differences in attitudes toward the #metoo social media campaign in two countries

ABSTRACTOn October 15, 2017, actress Alyssa Milano popularized the #metoo campaign, which sought to expose the prevalence of sexual harassment and assault in public domains by encouraging victims to share their experiences on social media using the hashtag metoo. The online campaign rapidly grew to a global phenomenon, which was generally well supported. However, some criticized the campaign online as a battle of the sexes, which pits men against women. Our cross-cultural research investigated whether gender differences in attitudes and feelings toward #metoo are due to underlying differences in ideologies and experiences that only partly overlap with gender. We surveyed respondents in the United States, where the campaign began, and in Norway, a highly gender-egalitarian country. In both countries, men expressed less positivity toward #metoo than women and perceived it as substantially more harmful and less beneficial. These gender differences were largely accounted for by men being higher than women in hostile sexism, higher in rape myth acceptance, and lower in feminist identification. The results, hence, suggest that gender differences in attitudes to social media campaigns such as #metoo might be best characterized as dimensional ideological differences rather than fundamental group differences.

Youth Response to Rape: Rape Myths and Social Support.

Adolescents and young adults face the highest incidence of sexual assault, yet only limited research focuses on the experience of adolescent survivors, adolescent rape myth acceptance, or the ways youth respond to rape. Survivors tend to disclose to at least one person, typically peers, and the response, whether positive or negative, can impact well-being and help-seeking behaviors. Focus groups across Oregon, a leader in state-level comprehensive sexuality education policy, solicited high school-student reactions to an alcohol-involved rape scenario. These rich-case participants had taken comprehensive sexuality education classes and were affiliated with health and sexuality organizations. These youth were anticipated to showcase best possible outcomes resulting from current sexuality education practices. After hearing a hypothetical scenario involving a friend's experience with alcohol-involved sexual assault, participants were asked how they would respond. Participants spontaneously discussed whether the actions described constituted rape, often relying on victim-blaming rape myths as evidence. Alcohol use was a critical factor in interpretations. Female use increased her perceived culpability and male use decreased his. After assessing blame and whether the incident constituted rape, youth described three types of support (informational, instrumental or practical, and emotional support) they would offer as well as barriers when responding to the victim and intentions to hold victims accountable. These responses paint a concerning portrait of the ways youth make sense of sexual violence and consider responding to a friend's disclosure. Sexuality education policy mandates and intervention programs must target the problematic links between alcohol, rape, and rape myths while reinforcing non-victim-blaming support.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Gender Invariance of the Revised IRMA Scale in Nigeria

Research scales developed in one society are often validated in another society to determine the factor structure and measurement equivalence of the scales. Using a convenience sample of 378 respondents from two cross-sectional studies, the present analyses examined confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and gender invariance in the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) Scale in Nigeria. Specifically, the analyses examined whether the scale holds similar factor structure, whether the latent means can be compared, and whether respondents interpreted items similarly or ascribed the same meaning to them across gender. Based on the analyses, CFA results validated the hypothesized multidimensional four-factor structure of IRMA, namely, “she asked for it,” “he didn’t mean to,” “it wasn’t really rape,” and “she lied.” Similarly, the IRMA measurement was invariant (partial scalar invariance) across gender, suggesting that men and women interpreted IRMA’s items and constructs similarly. Results of an independent-samples t test suggested that women were more likely than men to reject the myth that female victim of rape “lied.” In general, preliminary findings indicated that IRMA is suitable for research on rape myths in Nigeria. Knowledge generated from its use may enhance understanding of rape myths, rape-supportive behaviors, and rape prevention and victim intervention programs.

Gender-Based Violence Prevention Workshops: An Experimental Evaluation of Efficacy

ABSTRACTGender-based violence has become an increasingly visible and salient public problem. In the Fall of 2015, the University of Connecticut’s Violence Against Women Prevention Program (VAWPP) implemented interactive workshops in first-year experience (FYE) classes to reduce rape myth acceptance, improve knowledge and understanding of the University’s affirmative consent policy, and increase confidence in interpreting cues related to sexual consent. This randomized experimental design tested whether these outcomes were realized as a result of the workshops. In almost all instances, the workshops substantially and statistically significantly decreased students’ rape myth acceptance, increased their knowledge and understanding of consent, and improved their confidence in cue interpretation.

Testimonial Smothering and Pornography

This paper defends the claim that there are two previously underexplored ways in which pornography silences women. These ways that pornography silences are (1) the smothering of refusal and (2) the smothering of sexual assault reports, and they can be explained in part through Kristie Dotson’s account of “testimonial smothering.” Unlike the work of other writers in the pornography as silencing literature, my discussion of silenced refusal of sex deals with the cases where women have said yes to sex but would have said no if they had felt that they could have. I show that this, and cases where women do not report sexual assault, count as testimonial smothering through identifying rape myths as a species of “pernicious ignorance.” I make the connection to pornography in presenting evidence that pornography contributes to acceptance of rape myths. This takes us to my general conclusion: Dotson’s account of testimonial smothering gives us a way in which pornography contributes to the silencing of women, by silencing their refusal of sex and their reports of sexual assault.

Exploring the Influence of Hookup Culture on Female and Male Rape Myths.

The present study systematically assesses the influence of hookup culture endorsement on the acceptance of female rape myths (i.e., false, stereotypical, or prejudicial beliefs regarding sexual assault involving female survivors) and male rape myths (i.e., false, stereotypical, or prejudicial beliefs about sexual assault involving male survivors). Multivariate regression analyses were conducted to assess the primary hypotheses that a particular form of hookup culture endorsement (i.e., the belief that hookups elevate an individual's social status) would act as the primary predictor of male and female rape myth acceptance among a sample of 376 U.S. college students. As with prior research, a complex relationship emerged for both male and female rape mythology in which acceptance increases or decreases based upon the form of hookup culture endorsement examined, as the endorsement of beliefs reflecting heterosexual power dynamics (e.g., harmlessness and status attainment) functioned as positive predictors of rape myth acceptance, while beliefs challenging such assumptions (e.g., sexual freedom) served to decrease rape myth acceptance. Results supported the primary hypotheses that beliefs concerning hookups and status attainment would be the largest predictor of male rape myth acceptance and female rape myth acceptance. Consistent with prior research, the predictive power of gender and religiosity was initially significant across both male and female rape myth acceptance yet diminished when controlling for levels of hookup culture endorsement. Furthermore, analyses indicated gender differences among the influences of hookup culture endorsement for female rape myth acceptance alone, as even though beliefs concerning status served as an aggravating factor for female rape myth acceptance, beliefs concerning sexual freedom served as a mitigating factor for women only.

The influence of ‘High’ vs. ‘Low’ rape myth acceptance on police officers' judgements of victim and perpetrator responsibility, and rape authenticity

PurposePrevious studies suggest that officers' level of rape myth acceptance (RMA) is predictive of their case decision making and judgements towards victim-survivors. However, few studies have directly assessed the relationship between RMA and responsibility and authenticity judgments. Methods808 UK police officers categorised as ‘high’ or ‘low’ in rape myth acceptance made judgements of victim and perpetrator responsibility, and case authenticity, towards one of 16 vignettes depicting a hypothetical rape scenario varying on victim-perpetrator relationship, victim reputation, and initial point of resistance. ResultsOfficers categorised as ‘high’ in RMA rated victims as more responsible, perpetrators as less responsible, and cases as less authentic than those deemed to be ‘low’ in RMA. When rape-myth related factors were present, both individually and in combination, judgements by officers ‘high’ in RMA were more negative than those ‘low’ in RMA. ConclusionsResults suggest that officers ‘high’ in RMA may judge victims of rape differently to those ‘low’ in RMA, particularly when rape myth-related extra-legal case factors are present. The potential implications for training and selection are discussed.