3D Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Research Articles

Potential of Non-Contact Dynamic Response Measurements for Predicting Small Size or Hidden Damages in Highly Damped Structures.

Vibration-based structural health monitoring (SHM) is essential for evaluating structural integrity. Traditional methods using contact vibration sensors like accelerometers have limitations in accessibility, coverage, and impact on structural dynamics. Recent digital advancements offer new solutions through high-speed camera-based measurements. This study explores how camera settings (speed and resolution) influence the accuracy of dynamic response measurements for detecting small cracks in damped cantilever beams. Different beam thicknesses affect damping, altering dynamic response parameters such as frequency and amplitude, which are crucial for damage quantification. Experiments were conducted on 3D-printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) cantilever beams with varying crack depth ratios from 0% to 60% of the beam thickness. The study utilised the Canny edge detection technique and Fast Fourier Transform to analyse vibration behaviour captured by cameras at different settings. The results show an optimal set of camera resolutions and frame rates for accurately capturing dynamic responses. Empirical models based on four image resolutions were validated against experimental data, achieving over 98% accuracy for predicting the natural frequency and around 90% for resonance amplitude. The optimal frame rate for measuring natural frequency and amplitude was found to be 2.4 times the beam's natural frequency. The findings provide a method for damage assessment by establishing a relationship between crack depth, beam thickness, and damping ratio.

Structural Optimization of a Large-Scale 3D-Printed High-Altitude Propeller Blade with Experimental Validation

This paper presents a structural optimization of a 3D-printed thermoplastic-core propeller blade for high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicles using a genetic algorithm. It aims to minimize the weight of the blade by creating longitudinal holes and spars and to minimize the blade tip deflection during operation at an altitude of 16 km. The objective is to check the validity of a 3D-printed material modeling approach for large-scale and more complex 3D-printed parts, such as hollow twisted blades. The approach is based on attentively selecting the printing parameters that reduce the anisotropy of the 3D-printed parts. The linear isotropic behavior of 3D-printed Polylactic Acid and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene M30 tensile samples, which have been tested at ambient and low temperatures (−60°C), is utilized to numerically predict the experimental deformation and natural frequencies of 3D-printed substitute and twisted full blades with good accuracy. The validated linear isotropic model of each material is then used to evaluate the objectives and the constraints of the two-objective optimization process using one-way fluid–structure interaction. Four optimized blades have been selected from the Pareto fronts as candidates, printed, and tested in bending and vibration. The numerical and experimental results of the candidate blades in terms of deformation and natural frequencies are in good agreement, proving the validity of the present macroscale approach for large-scale hollow twisted blades.

Enhanced strength, toughness and reliability in crab exoskeleton–inspired 3D-printed porous thermoplastics

PurposeFused deposition modeling enables multiscale structure control. However, most of this structural space is unexplored. Specifically, the impact of biomimetic porous structures on the mechanical behavior and reliability of common thermoplastics are unclear. In this work, porous structures inspired by the multifunctional crab exoskeleton were 3D-printed with different raster orientations, including fully rotating rasters similar to Bouligand structures found in biological materials. Tensile tests and simulations were performed to observe the stochastic behavior of fracture properties and to reveal the underlying origins of mechanical reliability in biomimetic porous systems.Design/methodology/approachTensile tests were performed on 3D-printed porous structures with four different rasters. These rasters were biomimetic Bouligand, semi-Bouligand, 00 raster and 45°/−45° raster. In addition, two different sets were manufactured to observe the impact of contours on the mechanical behavior. A total of 137 tensile tests were performed. A total of 88 finite element simulations were executed using Abaqus built-in Hashin damage initiation criterion and energy-based damage evolution law. Weibull analyses were performed to quantify the stochastic properties.FindingsBiomimetic Bouligand structure is effective in increasing fracture strength. Average fracture strength of the Bouligand structure was 33% higher compared to the default 45°/−45° and 10% higher compared to 00 rasters. Variations in strength were lower in Bouligand structure compared to the default 45°/−45° raster. However, 00 raster had the highest Weibull modulus m = 54 compared to Bouligand m = 25 and 45°/−45° m = 17. Simulations showed that Bouligand structure is effective in increasing the mechanical reliability through local damage accumulation around the holes. The simulated Weibull modulus of the Bouligand structure was 40 compared to the moduli of other rasters that ranged from 18 to 25.Practical implicationsThe mechanical reliability of porous Bouligand structures is higher compared to other rasters, which makes the biomimetic structure a better choice for industrial applications. Contours decrease the strength and strain at failure for 3D-printed porous structures. Bouligand structures with rotating raster orientations increased strength and strain at failure when contours are present in the porous structure.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study showing the effects of biomimetic raster orientations on the mechanical behavior and the effects of contours on the tensile fracture properties of 3D-printed porous acrylonitrile butadiene styrene using tensile tests and fracture simulations. This is the first study applying composite fracture model to anisotropic porous 3D-printed polymers.

Effects of nozzle geometry and fiber orientation on the tensile strength of 3D printed continuous fiber reinforced composites

In material extrusion (MEX) based 3D printing, inter-filament voids are intrinsic to printing process. The void orientation, volume and shape are affected by multiple factors including the nozzle shape, stacking sequence and printing direction. In this study, the adverse effects of the inter-filament voids on tensile properties and damage modes were investigated numerically on 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene-carbon fiber (ABS/CF) continuous fiber-reinforced composites (CFRCs). Uniaxial tensile simulations were performed considering various nozzle geometries (circular, square), fiber orientations (θ=0o,30o,45o,60o,90o) relative to loading direction, and a regular stacking sequence of extrudates. The extrudate cross-section was modeled either using elliptical or superelliptical extrudates deposited from a circular or square nozzle, respectively. Excellent agreement was seen when the simulated results were benchmarked against several published experimental and numerical work. Simulated results showed that changing the nozzle shape from circular to square improved the mechanical properties across all fiber angles by lowering the void content by 7−8% and increasing the ultimate tensile strength (σT) by 11−18%, tensile stiffness (ET) by 6−8%, and the tensile failure strains (ϵT,fail) by 1−11%. For superelliptical extrudates the number of observed damage modes also reduced, and this is due to a 37.2% and 58.2% improvement in the inter-filament and inter-layer bond lengths, respectively. Also, when fiber angle became increasingly off-axis to tensile load direction, the strengths, moduli, and failure strains reduced for both circular and square nozzles. The significance of using microstructure geometries and explicitly modeling inter-filament voids for simulating MEX printed CFRCs was highlighted by comparing these results with both analytical calculations and simulated results of homogeneous solid CFRC blocks without voids.

Mechanical and Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Reinforced with Rubberwood Fiber

An additive manufacturing (AM) has become very popular due to its simplicity in producing complicated products using just one process due to the layer-by-layer addition of material, which makes it possible for more complicated products to be created. The constraint of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) printed components with inadequate mechanical qualities has prevented AM from being widely adopted by numerous industries. The mechanical and thermal qualities of FFF printed components which is a pure polymer could be enhanced by reinforcing the wood fiber into the polymer. In this study, the twin-screw extruder was used to produce the wood plastic composites (WPCs) filaments, which were made with ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) as the matrix material and 1-3wt% rubberwood fiber (RWF) for reinforcement. The effects of the extrusion parameter, such as the volume fraction of RWF and the temperature of the extrusion process, on the 3D-printed WPCs samples were investigated. The experimental results of 3D-printed WPC sample were found that the highest compressive strength value is 24.3 MPa, obtained from the rubberwood 1wt% at the extrusion temperature 218 °C whereas the pure ABS filaments obtaining from the commercial and extrusion process gave the values of 28.9 and 14.5 MPa, respectively. The highest value of tensile strength is 8.4 MPa with the rubberwood 2wt% and temperature 198 °C whereas the pure ABS filaments obtaining from the commercial and extrusion process gave the values of 10.9 and 7.4 MPa, respectively. The morphological analysis of the 3D-printed WPC sample was observed to exhibit an effect of printing process. The result showed that an increasing temperature of extrusion process increases both tensile and compressive strengths of the samples whereas an increasing amount of fiber increases the tensile strength but decreased the compressive strength. Analysis of variance demonstrated linear factor and 2-way interaction factor of the extrusion parameter influence on compression and tensile strength significantly. The rubberwood 2wt% and the temperature 218 °C was suggested to achieve the suitable condition for extrusion process for the 3D-printed WPC sample. In addition, the discussions were supported with the thermal properties achieved from Thermogravimetric analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry.

The Influence of Microstructural Arrangement on the Failure Characteristics of 3D-Printed Polymers: Exploring Damage Behaviour in Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene.

This study investigated how printing conditions influence the fracture behaviour of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) under tensile loading. Dog-bone-shaped ABS specimens were produced using the fusion filament fabrication technique, with varying printing angles. Tensile tests were conducted on pre-notched specimens with consistent pre-notch lengths but different orientations. Optical and scanning electron microscopies were employed to analyse crack propagation in the pre-notched specimens. In order to support experimental evidence, finite element computation was implemented to study the damage induced by the microstructural rearrangement of the filaments when subject to tensile loading. The findings revealed the simple linear correlation between the failure properties including elongation at break and maximum stress in relation to the printing angle for different pre-notch lengths. A more progressive damage was found to support the ultimate performance of the studied material. This experiment evidence was used to build a damage model of 3D-printed ABS that accounts for the onset, growth, and damage saturation. This damage modelling is able to capture the failure properties as a function of the printing angle using a sigmoid-like damage function and a modulation of the stiffness within the raster. The numerical results demonstrated that damage pattern develops as a result of the filament arrangement and weak adhesion between adjacent filaments and explains the diffuse damage kinetics observed experimentally. This study concludes with a topological law relating the notch size and orientation to the rupture properties of 3D-printed ABS. This study supports the idea of tailoring the microstructural arrangement to control and mitigate the mechanical instabilities that lead to the failure of 3D-printed polymers.

Design and build of a portable apparatus for measuring lace tension

Laces have traditionally been used to secure the foot, limit slippage, enhance fit, and prevent injury across different types of footwear. Quantitatively assessing the merits and effectiveness of laces is technically challenging due to the lack of portable instrumentation that can measure lace tension reliably. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to design and build a portable apparatus to quantify lace tension to be used on footwear in both laboratory and real-world environments. The apparatus was designed to meet three major design criteria: (i) portable, (ii) able to accommodate different types of footwear, lace materials, and lacing patterns, and (iii) able to measure lace tension while the footwear is secured on the foot. As a result of the design process, the apparatus consisted of a base, fabricated from High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), and a frame, made from aluminum and 3D printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS). A measurement system was affixed to the frame and consisted of a lever, a non-deformable cable with a hook, a load cell, a caliper, and a microcontroller to measure the force and change in length of laces when a force was applied. The total height and weight of the apparatus was 25.5 cm and 6.35 kg, respectively. A reliability analysis was conducted using three different types of laces (waxed, non-waxed, and carbon fiber blend) and revealed a high internal consistency within lace types with alpha values of 0.95, 0.81, 0.91, respectively. The interclass reliability coefficient across lace types revealed an alpha value of 0.84. As a result of the design, build, and reliability analysis, the apparatus was able to provide reliable measurements of lace tension while satisfying the design criteria. It is envisioned that the apparatus can be used for ongoing investigations across different types of footwear and different types of laces.

Effect of acetone treatment and copper oxide coating on the mechanical and wear properties of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene structures

ABSTRACT 3D-printed ABS samples are treated with acetone and coated with copper oxide (CuO) for varying durations to understand how these treatment processes affect their mechanical and tribological properties. Tensile strength, flexural strength, coefficient of friction, and wear of ABS were analyzed under various pre-treatment and coating conditions and it is proved that acetone treatment and CuO coating can be effectively used to tune such properties to meet desired specifications. For 3D-printed ABS structures, CuO coating significantly enhances their tensile strength without acetone treatment. Although acetone treatment reduces their tensile strength as demonstrated, CuO coating can increase it again which means their tensile strength can be tuned by using the two processes. Furthermore, both acetone treatment and CuO coating improve their flexural strength. Additionally, acetone treatment and CuO coating both decrease their coefficient of friction. FESEM and EDS analyses were conducted on the structures to analyze and verify their wear properties.

The Effects of Printing Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

The Effects of Printing Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Mechanical Properties and Performance of 3D-Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Reinforced with Carbon, Glass and Basalt Short Fibers.

This paper presents the results of experimental investigation of the mechanical characteristics of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and its modifications reinforced with different types of short-fiber fillers: carbon, glass, and basalt. Elastic modulus, tensile and bending strength, as well as fracture toughness were determined in series of mechanical tests for samples produced with different manufacturing parameters, such as nozzle diameter and infill angle. It was found that the use of ABS filament reinforced with the short fibers can significantly improve the mechanical properties of 3D-printed devices when the infill angle is oriented along the vector of the applied load. In such a case, the elastic modulus and tensile strength can be increased by more than 1.7 and 1.5 times, respectively. The use of a larger nozzle diameter led to the growth of tensile strength by an average of 12.5%. When the macroscopic load is applied along the normal to the printed layers, the addition of short fibers does not give much gain in mechanical properties compared to pure ABS, which was confirmed by both standard tensile and fracture toughness tests. The surface of the fractured samples was examined using scanning electronic microscopy, which allowed us to make conclusions on the type of defects as well as on the level of adhesion between the polymeric matrix and different types of short fibers.

Effects of Gamma Irradiation on the Tensile Properties of 3D-Printed Polycarbonate Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

3D printing is now being applied in various research areas due to its ability to produce highly complex parts whenever needed. This is highly helpful in the fields of robotics; radiation environment monitoring and space applications where stand-alone equipment are usually required. In this work, FDM 3D-printed polycarbonate acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PCABS) samples were subjected to 1 kGy to 9 kGy of gamma irradiation from a Cobalt-60 irradiator. Parameters such as infill density and dose rate were modified to determine the best setting to improve the mechanical characteristics of the 3D-printed thermoplastic. Results show that samples with lower infill density obtain higher ultimate strength when exposed to higher doses of radiation.

Neutron moderation and manufacturing viability of 3D printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene spheres for use in neutron radiation detectors

Neutron moderation characteristics and manufacturing viability of ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) spheres were studied using a 6LiI(Eu) scintillator detector and a commercial 3D printer with FDM-type extruder. Response functions (RFs) for the detector with ABS spheres of varying diameters were calculated with the Monte Carlo (MC) code MCNPX and compared with RFs obtained for high-density polyethylene (HDPE) spheres. Designed ABS spheres were produced and irradiated with 241Am–Be neutron beams to validate MC simulations.

Effect of raster angle on the fracture properties of additively manufactured ABS via essential work of fracture

AbstractThe increasing application of additive manufacturing (AM) technology across various sectors has sparked significant interest in characterizing 3D‐printed components. An essential aspect of achieving fracture‐resistant designs is gaining a comprehensive understanding of the fracture behavior exhibited by these components. While most studies have focused on linear‐elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), there is a lack of comprehensive studies on the post‐yield fracture behavior (PYFM) of 3D‐printed components. As a result, this study aims to fill this gap by investigating the impact of raster angle, a critical parameter influencing fracture properties and often leading to premature failures, on the fracture properties of fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) using essential work of fracture (EWF). Outcomes showed that by changing lay‐ups from [90]5 to [0]5, the value of we or elastic work increased by nearly 306%. Further, the maximum and minimum values of the plastic work (βwp) were for [45/−45/45/−45/45] and [90]5 lay‐ups, in order. By changing lay‐ups from [90]5 to [45/−45/45/−45/45], the value of βwp increased by approximately 216%. In addition, the fractured surfaces of tested samples are also analyzed to provide insights into the dominant failure mechanisms for different raster angles.

Enhanced transverse strength of 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene parts by carbon fiber/epoxy pin insertion

Thermoplastic parts fabricated by material extrusion (MEX) 3D printing usually possess weak inter-layer bonding, leading to low mechanical performance in the Z-direction. Here, we develop a simple but effective post-treatment method to improve the Z-strength of MEX-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts. In this method, commercial carbon fiber (CF) tows and epoxy were embedded into internal channels in MEX-printed structures to form high-strength CF/epoxy pins. Due to the mechanical interlock between the CF/epoxy pins and the printed ABS, the Z-strength of the printed parts improved significantly. Specifically, the Z-pinned ABS samples exhibit a strength of up to 71.74 MPa and a Young’s modulus of up to 5.93 GPa in the transverse direction, which were 335 % and 266 % higher than those of the printed neat counterparts, respectively. We find that the mechanical performance of the Z-pinned samples follows a simple rule of mixtures which is able to capture the Z-dependent mechanical strength and Young’s modulus. Also, curved CF/epoxy pins were successfully formed within printed thin-walled curved structures, offering the capability to strengthen MEX printed structures with complex shapes. This work demonstrates that the Z-pin embedding process can be an effective approach to improve the transverse strength of the MEX printed parts for load-bearing structural applications.

Damage detection and localization based on different types of actuators using the electromechanical impedance method in 3D-printed material

Electromechanical impedance (EMI) measurement, using piezoelectric transducers (PZTs) in the high-frequency range is a potential method for assessing the health of lightweight structures. The major objective of this work is to comprehend how different actuators react to damage in additively manufactured (AM) polymer structures. A novel frequency-range selection technique was suggested based on the maxima of the standard deviation of the impedance frequency spectra gathered for the referential and damage cases. A 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plate was used for the investigation, where two PZT and one macro fiber composite (MFC) actuator were glued to the surface. Small magnets were used to simulate damage and were positioned at increasing distances from each transducer as EMI measurements were made using the MFC and 1 PZT. This served both in studying the transducers’ sensitivity to damage and selecting the proper frequency range for damage detection utilizing the standard-deviation approach. The EMI-acquired data from the MFC actuator displays damage-sensitive peaks in a low-frequency band (0–58 ), while the PZT shows a good sensitivity in a higher frequency range (94–304 ). In order to evaluate the PZT and MFC actuators’ sensitivity to damage in the 3D-printed ABS plate, impact damage is also generated in the plate’s center. The impedance-based damage indices obtained from different types of PZTs (2 PZTs and 1 MFC) were projected to the same base level and then fused—for the first time—for impact-damage localization and further added magnetic mass damage localization. The obtained damage index values of impedance are encouraging for the evaluation of AM polymer structures with a 4.48 mm positional error from a real location by fusing data in the different frequency ranges for PZTs and MFC. The damage localization error increases significantly to the new location beyond the damage sensitivity range of the PZT2 and MFC for the added magnetic mass on the 3D printed structure.

Ratcheting strain accumulation of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene-graphene composites

This study aims to examine the ratcheting response of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymer reinforced with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) in its filament and 3D-printed forms. Combined chemical solution and melting compounding technique was used to fabricate the composite filaments through the use of a twin-screw extruder. In terms of filament nanocomposites, the effects of varying in GNP weight percentages was studied on the ratcheting response of the samples undergoing cyclic loads with the stress ratio of R = 0. Results revealed that filaments containing 0.5 wt% GNPs experienced the highest fatigue life and lowest strain ratcheting accumulation as compared to pure ABS filament and those with GNPs at 0.1 and 1.0 wt%. Observations revealed that the 3D-printed parts exhibited more complex ratcheting behaviour, wherein the interaction of printing process parameters including raster orientation and nozzle diameter along with factors such as GNP contents simultaneously influenced the fatigue and ratcheting behaviour of the printed specimens. Selecting the appropriate amount of nanofillers, along with the optimum printing process parameters, not only can increase the fatigue life of a 3D-printed samples, but can also substantially reduce the ratcheting strain accumulation values.

On Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Secondary Recycled Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Composite for Silencer Application in Short-Range Gun

On Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Secondary Recycled Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Composite for Silencer Application in Short-Range Gun

An investigation on tensile strength of 3D printed parts of Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) material

Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) components' mechanical properties reflect processing parameters' effectiveness. Tensile Strength’s parameter sequence of a FDM 3D-printed Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (Abs) material specimen is examined. Design Expert tools were utilized to conduct a variance analysis (ANOVA) to assess tensile strength components and interactions. Four FDM processing parameters—layer thickness, raster angle, infill pattern, and infill width—are examined using the Taguchi DOE. The ASTM D638-compliant specimen measurements were compared to the 3D computer-aided design model. When there are ranges of processing parameters and no linear processing criteria, design of experiments (DOEs) become difficult to determine. Identifying the best processing parameters requires a certain number of specimens. Optimum tensile strength of ABS component was 9.22 MPa at 0.3 mm layer thickness, 60° raster angle, infill width of 0.25 mm.

Copper-nickel electroplating of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene for interference and radiation shielding applications

In this study, electromagnetic and radiation shielding structures were fabricated by 3D printing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) structures via fused filament fabrication and electroplating with copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) metals. Prior to electroplating, the printed ABS materials were made conductive by surface electrodepositon of polypyrrole (PPy). ABS adsorbs the pyrrole monomer, which subsequently polymerizes via oxidation forming conductive PPy layer on the printed structures. The successful anchoring of PPy layer can be attributed to its hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions with ABS. Thermal analysis, optical, and electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray were employed to characterize the printed shielding structures, while the interference and radiation shielding effectiveness were evaluated using a spectrum analyzer and dosimeter, respectively. The interference shielding was found to be effective at 60 ± 5 dB over relatively small frequency range. Shielding was also apparent against gamma and X-ray ionizing rays, but more significantly effective against beta rays. Furthermore, the Cu/Ni coating was able to reduce any heat-induced dimensional changes for the 3D printed ABS substrate without compromising the mechanical integrity.

The impact of sterilization, body environment condition and raster orientation on tensile-shear cracking of sub-sized 3D printed specimens

Use of 3D printed parts in biomedical applications has received attention recently. The applied loads, manufacturing pre-processing factors or in vivo conditions may affect the reliability and integrity of such implants. To obtain deeper understand regarding the cracking resistance and microstructure of extrusion-based 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) material a number of sub-sized and short bend beam samples are manufactured. The influence of raster orientation, Gamma radiation sterilization, body environment (saline 0.9% at temperature of 37 °C) and combined Sterilized process & body environment was studied on the mixed-mode I + II fracture toughness and strain energy release rate values. It was observed that exposing the 3D printed ABS material to Gamma-radiation process can increase noticeably the mixed mode fracture resistance compared to the control sample. Printing pattern with raster orientation of ±45° provided a higher mixed-mode fracture envelope compared to pattern of 0/90° for all investigated environments. The microstructure study of SEM pictures obtained from the investigated samples showed dominantly ductile type fracture with some evidences such as formation of dimples and ridge markings. The depth and number of ridge markings and dimples were increased by moving towards mode II (shear mode loading) and for the samples exposed to body environment.