3D Geological Model Research Articles

Research on 3D Geological and Numerical Unified Model of in Mining Slope Based on Multi-Source Data

As mining engineering progresses into the deep excavation phase, the intensification of high pressure, high temperature, strong disturbances, and complex geological conditions becomes increasingly prominent. Researchers perform stability analysis on the excavation area to reduce potential safety hazards during the extraction process. Developing a detailed numerical calculation model that accurately reflects the true geological structure is essential for numerical simulation analysis in mining engineering. Based on the excellent 3D geological modeling capabilities of 3D Mine software, this paper introduces a new 3D geological and numerical unified modeling method (3DMine-Rhino-HyperMesh) involving multi-software coupling and details the specific steps and concepts of this modeling approach. Subsequently, using a certain open-pit mine in Panzhihua as a backdrop, a detailed geological and numerical unified model is established, reflecting the true geological structure of the mining area, and the potential failure mechanisms of the mine slope are analyzed. The results indicate that the modeling method aligns well with the actual geological conditions, enhancing the grid quality of the numerical model and offering a new modeling approach for simulating and analyzing large complex geological entities in mining operations.

Applying 3D geological modeling to predict favorable areas for coalbed methane accumulation: a case study in the Qinshui Basin

Applying 3D geological modeling to predict favorable areas for coalbed methane accumulation: a case study in the Qinshui Basin

Deterministic modelling for driving factors of mineralization in Shanggong gold deposit (China)

1. Three-dimensional (3D) deterministic modeling is crucial for analyzing the controlling factors of mineralization. The Shanggong gold deposit, situated in the southern margin of North China Craton, represents a magmatic hydrothermal deposit. To construct the 3D deterministic model, boreholes, cross-sections, and geochemistry assays are integrated based on the geological characteristics of the Shanggong gold deposit. This paper summarizes its contents as follows: 1) GoCAD software can be utilized to build a 3D geology model encompassing faults and ore bodies; 2) Geostatistics and discrete smooth interpolation (DSI) can be employed to create a 3D attribute model involving grade and Au/Pb ratio. The findings reveal that: 1) High-value zones are associated with NE and NNE trending cross faults; 2) Deterministic modeling, such as grade model and Au/Pb ratio model, effectively elucidates the metallogenic process mechanism.

Hydrogeological conceptual model of Stampriet transboundary aquifer system in Southern Africa

Stampriet Transboundary Aquifer System (STAS) is shared between Botswana, Namibia and South Africa with massive utilization especially in Namibia. However, the understanding of the comprehensive hydrogeological framework of the aquifer system is limited. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive hydrogeological conceptual model of the aquifer system which mainly entailed 3D hydrostratigraphic modelling using Rockworks 3D geological modelling software, analysis of regional groundwater occurrence and flow system, sources and sinks, hydraulic parameters and definition of STAS boundaries. Six hydrostratigraphic units composed of four aquifers, including a new one (the Dwyka), and two aquitards were identified. Analysis of the regional groundwater flow system revealed that groundwater flows in two directions, indicating presence of a regional groundwater divide. 3D hydrostratigraphic geometry revealed that groundwater flow in STAS is influenced by topography but also by faults such as the Zoetfontein Fault, which displaces the pre-Kalahari rocks vertically creating a barrier to groundwater flow. Hydrostratigraphic and 3D geometry work also led to a 42% increase of the size of STAS compared to the boundary initially delineated by UNESCO. The proposed hydrogeological conceptual model forms a basis for development of numerical integrated hydrological model to simulate surface-groundwater interactions, regional groundwater flow and aquifer development potential.

Estimation of residual water saturation in 3D geological modeling

Estimation of residual water saturation in 3D geological modeling

Research on 3D geological modeling based on boosting integration strategy

Accurate geology modeling is critical in coal mining engineering for increasing mining efficiency and safety. Traditional 3D modeling approaches rely on drill hole data to fill in unknown geographical characteristics using interpolation or machine learning methods. However, the cost of individual borehole projects is high, and borehole distribution is sparse; the filling of sparse boreholes by interpolation smoothes the geologic data to some extent, and some abnormal geologic conditions cannot be shown in the interpolated geologic data; and the classification of subsurface space by machine learning is hampered by sparse training samples and model overfitting or underfitting. As a result, this paper proposes a method to reduce the complexity and uncertainty in the process of 3D geological modeling by integrating the classification results of multiple classifiers based on the machine learning classification model and constructing a 3D geological model based on gas extraction borehole data using the Boosting integration strategy. The results reveal that the Boosting integration model outperforms a single machine learning model in geological modeling, with improved classification accuracy and resilience. A comparative investigation of different classifiers demonstrates that the Boosting integrated model outperforms a single classifier in geological modeling. The geologic profile analysis confirms the dependability and stability of the Boosting integrated model, which can provide an effective solution for 3D geologic modeling of coal mine workings and is critical for increasing mining productivity and lowering accident risks.

The Production Analysis and Exploitation Scheme Design of a Special Offshore Heavy Oil Reservoir—First Offshore Artificial Island with Thermal Recovery

More and more offshore heavy oil resources are discovered and exploited as the focus of the oil and gas industry shifts from land to sea. However, unlike onshore heavy oil reservoirs, offshore heavy oil reservoirs not only have active edge and bottom water but also have different exploitation methods. In this paper, a typical special heavy oil reservoir in China was analyzed in detail, based on geology–reservoir–engineering integration technology. Firstly, it is identified as a self-sealing bottom water heavy oil reservoir by analyzing its geological characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation mechanism. Secondly, the water cut is initially controlled by oil viscosity, but subsequently, by reservoir thickness through the analysis of oil and water production data. Thirdly, the bottom oil–water contact of the reservoir was re-corrected to build an accurate 3D geological model, based on the production history matching of a single well and the whole reservoir. Lastly, a scheme of thermal production coupled with cold production was proposed to exploit this special reservoir, and the parameters of steam, N2, and CO2 injection and production were optimized to predict oil production. This work can provide a valuable development model for the efficient exploitation of similar offshore special heavy oil reservoirs.

Three-Dimensional Geological Modelling in Earth Science Research: An In-Depth Review and Perspective Analysis

This study examines the development trajectory and current trends of three-dimensional (3D) geological modelling. In recent years, due to the rising global energy demand and the increasing frequency of regional geological disasters, significant progress has been made in this field. The purpose of this study is to clarify the potential complexity of 3D geological modelling, identify persistent challenges, and propose potential avenues for improvement. The main objectives include simplifying the modelling process, improving model accuracy, integrating different data sources, and quantitatively evaluating model parameters. This study integrates global research in this field, focusing on the latest breakthroughs and applications in mineral exploration, engineering geology, geological disaster assessment, and military geosciences. For example, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) tilt photography technology, multisource data fusion, 3D geological modelling method based on machine learning, etc. By identifying areas for improvement and making recommendations, this work aims to provide valuable insights to guide the future development of geological modelling toward a more comprehensive and accurate “Transparent Earth”. This review underscores the global applications of 3D geological modelling, highlighting its crucial role across various sectors such as mineral exploration, the oil and gas industry, urban planning, geological hazard assessment, and geoscientific research. The review emphasizes the sector-specific importance of this technology in enhancing modelling accuracy and efficiency, optimizing resource management, driving technological innovation, and improving disaster response capabilities. These insights provide a comprehensive understanding of how 3D geological modelling can significantly impact and benefit multiple industries worldwide.

Clarification of the geological structure of hydrocarbon deposits when creating a digital geological 3D model

Clarification of the geological structure of hydrocarbon deposits when creating a digital geological 3D model

Geological modeling of a tectonically controlled hydrothermal system in the southwestern part of the Pannonian basin (Croatia)

Geothermal energy is an important resource in the green economy transition. For the preservation of a geothermal resource it is crucial to assess its renewability and the sustainability of the exploitation. These aspects are influenced by the interaction among the physical, chemical, geological, and hydrogeological processes. The reconstruction of the geological assemblage allows the detailing of the geometries of the reservoir and fracture systems that influence the fluid flow and the water/rock interaction. The control of regional/local scale fault and fold systems on the development of the Daruvar hydrothermal system (DHS), located in Croatian part of the Pannonian basin, is detailed in this work. Field investigations were conducted to collect structural data on strata orientation and fault/fracture systems. The dataset was integrated with geological and geophysical data to develop composite geological profiles and a 3D geological model. Results display a pattern of generally N-S and E-W striking folds and cogenetic fracture systems with orientations parallel to the fold axes. The geological reconstruction was integrated with geophysical, hydrogeological, and geochemical data to propose a conceptual model of the DHS. The DHS is a topographically driven system hosted in a Mesozoic carbonate reservoir where E-W striking fracture systems are regional flow paths that enable infiltration of meteoric water to 1 km depth and its reheating in its reservoir area. In Daruvar, an anticline and fault/fracture systems accommodate the uplift of reservoir to shallow depths, promoting the bedrock fracturing and increase of the permeability field. These conditions favor the localized upwelling of thermal water resulting in four thermal springs (38°C and 50°C) in Daruvar city area. This work highlights the importance of employing a multidisciplinary approach to detail the complex interaction among the processes driving the geothermal resource.

Advancing geological modelling and geodata management: a web-based system with AI assessment in Singapore

ABSTRACT This paper outlines the development and deployment of the Geodata Modelling and Management System (GEM2S) in Singapore. GEM2S offers a sophisticated web-based platform for visualising and interacting with 3D geological models of Singapore. Beyond basic visualisation and interaction, GEM2S provides advanced features for geodata management, including the functionality to upload new borehole data with AI assessment and to integrate geophysical results. The paper begins by elucidating the data processing procedures, which involve extracting data from electronic site investigation records. Additionally, common data errors for cleaning and validation purposes are summarised. Subsequently, the paper presents the 3D geological modelling process and results. The architecture of the web-GIS geodata management system is detailed, outlining the data flow and functions for interactive queries. Furthermore, the paper investigates two AI-based prototypes for quality assessment of newly acquired borehole data. Incorporating virtual boreholes generated from the geophysics effectively enhances the quality of the resulting geological model. GEM2S can serve as a comprehensive and user-friendly platform, making it a valuable system for underground project design and a foundational database for future subsurface planning in Singapore.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of subsurface stratigraphy using machine learning with neighborhood aggregation

In engineering geology and geotechnical engineering, it is well recognized that subsurface soils/rocks are natural materials and exhibit variability in stratigraphy due to the complex geological formation processes they have undergone. Knowledge of subsurface soil stratigraphy is of great importance to geotechnical engineers. However, accurate and reliable interpretation of subsurface soil stratigraphy is challenging due to the limited number of site investigation boreholes available at the site and the highly heterogeneous properties of soil stratigraphy (e.g., interbedded or non-ordered layers). This paper proposes an improved data-driven machine learning framework boosted with the neighborhood aggregation technique for modelling three-dimensional (3D) subsurface soil stratigraphy in a more general and robust manner. Neighborhood aggregation, a technique often adopted in graph network learning, is integrated into this framework to regulate and improve the prediction results of classical machine learning models. The proposed framework is then cross-validated using 165 real site investigation boreholes for four selected machine learning models respectively. Cross-validation results suggest that the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Random Forest (RF) models are more suitable for the task of soil stratigraphy prediction than Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM). Particularly, the XGBoost and RF are also amenable to neighborhood aggregation and can yield around 5% improvement in terms of average borehole prediction accuracy after introducing neighborhood aggregation. The improved machine learning framework allows for explicit 1D to 3D geological modelling, uncertainty quantification, and convenient visualization. The proposed framework facilitates digital transformation of geological and geotechnical site investigation.

A Concept for 3D Geological and Urban Subsurface Modeling with a Unified Voxel Model Examined by a Case Study for the City Center of Stuttgart (Baden-Württemberg), Germany

A Concept for 3D Geological and Urban Subsurface Modeling with a Unified Voxel Model Examined by a Case Study for the City Center of Stuttgart (Baden-Württemberg), Germany

СТЕПЕНЬ ВЛИЯНИЯ НЕОТЕКТОНИКИНА СЕЙСМИЧНОСТЬ АБИНСКОГО СЕГМЕНТА СЕВЕРО-ЗАПАДНОГО КАВКАЗА

Relief is one of the sources of information about neotectonic activity. Using structural-geomorphological analysis, it is possible to identify weak zones, which often reflect hidden low-amplitude faults and fracture zones under the surface of Quaternary deposits. Using structural-geomorphological analysis, planation surfaces were identified, displacement amplitudes along faults and the magnitude of neotectonic movements were determined for certain periods of time. The results obtained were compared with seismicity and the degree of inheritance was revealed. 3D computer geological modeling of the stress state also helps in identifying zones of increased neotectonic activity, as the most dangerous zones in terms of seismicity. The stress state and directions of the compression axes in the horizontal plane were calculated using the RMS Roxar software. Also, for a more detailed study of the latest geodynamics of the Abinsk segment, the frequencies of earthquakes and the amount of seismic energy released were analyzed, and frequency graphs were plotted. When comparing the growth deformations of neotectonic uplift structures and the values of the latest stress state with seismicity, their significant correlation was revealed.

Enhancing stability analysis of open-pit slopes via integrated 3D numerical modeling and data monitoring

The slope at Zhahanur open-pit mine (China) has experienced significant and prolonged deformation, posing a considerable risk to life and property within the mining area. To analyse the deformation and failure mechanism of the rock slope, geotechnical investigations, numerical simulations, and long-term movement monitoring were undertaken. In order to improve the efficiency of slope pretreatment, a point elimination method was proposed for the slope surface, and a 3D geological model of mining area was established. A systematic analysis was performed on monitoring data from surface slope radar and underground inclinometers, enabling the identification of the potential sliding surface and deformation pattern of northern slope in a rational manner. Additionally, through three-dimensional numerical simulation, the feasibility of the mining scheme that incorporates waste dump inside the pit was explored. These simulations accurately captured the varying deformation patterns at different levels and exhibited good agreement with available field monitoring data. The findings revealed a composite multi-stage slope failure pattern primarily controlled by weak layers. The safety factors associated to two competing slip surfaces were determined to be 1.20 and 1.15, respectively. To ensure the safe extraction of coal resources from the deformed slope, a combined mining scheme of in-pit dumping and mining is proposed in the study. The proposed scheme was shown to meet the production needs, with a minimum safety factor of 1.08 for rock slope under the mining scheme. By integrating various field monitoring techniques with numerical simulations, a collaborative monitoring scheme was devised to effectively and promptly identify potential sliding surface and implement necessary mining and control measures to ensure slope stability. This comprehensive approach provides valuable insights into the deformation behavior of the rock slope and facilitates the implementation of proactive measures to mitigate risks associated with slope instability.

Image of the five elements and prediction of the geothermal field based on gravity, magnetic and magnetotelluric data in the PanZ area

There are two problems in the prediction of the geothermal field in the PanZ area: (1) the plane scopes have some debates, and (2) the vertical scopes need to be further ascertained. Faced with these two problems, a complete set of methods was developed and summarized, and the details are as follows: a geothermal field can be divided into five elements, i.e., heat source, fault channel, thermal reservoir, cap rock and water; then, they are interpreted and imaged with the help of gravity, magnetic and magnetotelluric (MT) data; and finally, according to the integrity of five elements and the correlation between them, geothermal fields are predicted. In the PanZ area, (1) the normalized vertical derivative of the total horizontal derivative of the Bouguer gravity anomaly was applied to identify the fault channels; (2) the water was recognized using the joint interpretation results from an integrated geophysical profile with gravity and MT data instead of a single MT result; (3) the cap rock was inverted with the Bouguer gravity anomaly, using the Parker–Oldenburg inversion method, and with the help of the MT anomaly in the integrated geophysical profile, the vertical distribution of the geothermal reservoir was further ascertained; and (4) the intermediate acid magmatic rock with radioactivity, i.e., a heat source, was identified with the residual magnetic anomaly, imaged using the magnetic forward formula of the cuboid. Finally, the two geothermal fields were predicted and outlined using the above methods. A comparison of the distributions of the geothermal gradient and the outlet water temperatures of the drill holes indicated that the predicted results are credible. To better understand the effect of the method of predicting the geothermal field, a 3D geological model was constructed from the inverted results using GOCAD software, and the operating mechanism of geothermal system was analyzed based on the migration, storage, heating and insulation of the water element in the other four elements. To determine the reason for the formation of the geothermal field, the geological evolution of four elements was discussed, except the water element.

Graph neural network-based topological relationships automatic identification of geological boundaries

Topological relationship identification of geological boundaries greatly affects 3D geological modeling efficiency. However, due to the complex spatial distribution and unstructured data architecture of geological boundaries, the current topological identification still mainly depends on the manual operation and interpretation, which is time-consuming and labor-intensive. And geologists' judgments are based on knowledge and experience that are challenging to replicate through conventional algorithmic approaches. To address these challenges, a graph neural network-based geological boundary topological relationships automatic identification method is proposed. Based on graph theory, we conceptualize geological boundaries and their topological relationships as a graph transforming the identification task into an edge prediction problem within this topological graph. We employ the variational graph auto-encoder (VGAE) model to predict unknown edges in the topological graph, enabling automatic identification of geological boundary topological relationships. A geological information transformation method is proposed to extract and encode the geological boundaries’ features as inputs for VGAE. The proposed method is verified in an engineering case study. The results reveal that this method can efficiently and accurately analyze the geological boundary topological relationships. Moreover, it can greatly reduce the manual workload, requiring only 30% of the manual effort to obtain the geological boundary topological relationships, while achieving an average prediction accuracy of approximately 95%.

Multi-scale hydrostructural approach for karst environment. Application to the Arcier hydrosystem (eastern France)

Based on a multi-scale and hydrostructural approach, this study presents the most relevant methodology to be applied to a karst hydrosystem in order to get a full understanding of underground water flow. It implies a complete structural analysis, from the hydrosystem scale to the outcrop scale, including the intermediate scale of the major geological structures. We illustrate the method in the Arcier hydrosystem, in the northwestern border of the Jura fold-and-thrust belt (Eastern France).Field mapping and structural analysis allow to update the geological vision of the hydrosystem with two kink-type fault propagation folds, including a trishear kinematic model, on either side of a plateau presenting a hollow-and-dome configuration. Fracturing analysis reveals a fault-fracture network that we infer governs the entire hydrosystem. A Riedel pattern is highlighted, characterized by a N–S-striking (N355° ± 5), sinistral strike-slip, regional shear zone. Then, two 3D geological models, at different scales, constructed with MOVE and Visual Karsys softwares are combined with water levels and artificial tracer tests. It reveals a multilayer aquifer and a redefinition of groundwater circulations for the Arcier hydrosystem.The results demonstrate a strong geological control of karstic hydrosystems on groundwater circulations, proving that classical hydrogeological methods, such as natural and/or artificial tracers, must be combined with rigorous geological analysis. Moreover, the multi-scale approach provides an explanation of groundwater circulation based on the intersection between 3D geometry of impervious layers delimiting the aquifers and their base water level, instead of the 2D view (section or map) requiring systematic recourse to inferred vertical faults to cross permeability barriers vertically or laterally. This study also brings a new vision to the local protection of the water resource.

Three-Dimensional Quality Assessment of Urban Underground Space Resource Based on Multiple Geological Environmental Factors

With the rapid advancement of urbanization, the development and utilization of urban underground space resource (UUSR) has become one of the dominant features. However, in certain areas, the development of UUSR may cause disasters and accidents, such as ground collapse, settlements, and tunnel water gushing. Geological environmental factors (GEFs) are recognized as the fundamental constraining factor of UUSR development. In this paper, quality based on GEFs is defined to assess the development difficulty degree of UUSR. A 3D assessment framework is proposed based on 3D geological modelling and the interval continuous mathematical model (ICMM). The subjective and objective joint weight method of analytic hierarchy process and entropy weight method (AHP–EWM) is utilized to determine the weight of each indicator. The quality index (QI) of each spatial node of the 3D geological model is calculated by the ICMM mathematical model. A case study conducted in the Jiangbei New District of Nanjing, China, serves as a demonstration of the UUSR assessment. The results clearly illustrate the 3D distribution characteristics of the quality in the study area, offering valuable insights for future 3D urban underground space planning.

The 3D Crustal Structure in the Epicentral Region of the 1980, Mw 6.9, Southern Apennines Earthquake (Southern Italy): New Constraints From the Integration of Seismic Exploration Data, Deep Wells, and Local Earthquake Tomography

AbstractWe present the first 3D crustal model of the epicentral region of the 1980, Mw 6.9, normal‐faulting Irpinia earthquake (southern Italy) determined by jointly interpreting the CROP‐04 deep seismic profile, a grid of commercial seismic lines, deep exploration wells, and a high‐resolution Local Earthquake Tomography. Despite numerous seismotectonic surveys and source studies of the background seismicity recorded by dense networks, a complete 3D geological model of the mid‐upper crust was still lacking in the region. The architecture of the Neogene fold‐and‐thrust belt is also debated, with competing thin‐ and thick‐skinned tectonic interpretations. We use the 3D geological model derived from subsurface exploration data to interpret the upper crustal tomographic velocities in terms of rock physical properties, while Vp and Vp/Vs anomalies provide inferences on the deep structural setting down to 12 km depth. We find that a thick‐skinned deformation style allows explaining the geometry of Pliocene fold‐and‐thrust systems deforming the Apulian carbonates but also deeper Permo‐Triassic metasediments and the Paleozoic crystalline femic basement. Inherited compressional structures and lithological heterogeneities control background seismicity occurring at two crustal levels. Fluid‐driven shallow seismicity (<4–6 km) concentrates in a high‐Vp/Vs wedge of fractured, brine‐saturated Mesozoic stiff rocks delimited by the 1980 earthquake faults. Deep seismicity (9–14 km) clusters instead within the low‐Vp/Vs crystalline basement underneath the Apulian carbonate ramp‐anticlines. Commercial seismic data allow us to identify the Irpinia Fault, the main fault ruptured by the 1980 earthquake, reinforcing its previous interpretations as an immature structure with subtle geological and geophysical evidence.