Recent environmental crises underscore the critical importance of understanding the historical dynamics of the interrelationship between humans and nature. In this context, the approach of Environmental History has placed the interactions between human societies and nature at the core of its inquiry. Socio-Ecological Modeling, encompassing Environmental History within an interdisciplinary framework, aims to analyze the long-term historical dimensions of these interactions. Ancient Greco-Roman authors, although not always intending to do so, provide valuable information about the physical setting and environmental conditions of the Mediterranean world. The writings of the renowned orator Aelius Aristides on Smyrna contain the most comprehensive data regarding the city’s environmental characteristics in the 2nd century AD; through aspects such as topography, water sources, winds, earthquakes, and epidemics, they offer insights into the interactions between nature and humans. This study aims to explore how various environmental features and phenomena influenced the spatial organization, collective memory, and urban life of ancient Mediterranean cities over the long term, with a particular focus on Aelius Aristides’ accounts of ancient Smyrna.

This study presents the results of an archaeometric investigation of white marble votive reliefs from the Roman city of Pautalia (modern Kyustendil, Bulgaria), with the aim of clarifying patterns of material selection, production, and connectivity within the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Although these votive monuments, primarily dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, have long been examined from stylistic, iconographic, and epigraphic perspectives, the provenance of the marble used in their manufacture has remained largely unexplored. A total of 27 votive reliefs from urban and extra-urban sanctuary contexts were analysed using a multi-method approach combining petrographic analysis, stable isotope ratios (δ13C and δ18O), and trace element analysis by ICP-MS, and compared against an extensive geological reference database of ancient marble quarries. The results indicate a clear predominance of local and regional marble sources, alongside a limited but meaningful presence of imported material. This distribution pattern supports the existence of local workshops operating in or near Pautalia, which relied primarily on nearby quarry sources while selectively incorporating imported marble, likely through the reuse of pre-existing blocks or workshop offcuts rather than through systematic long-distance supply. These findings underscore Pautalia’s role as a regional production centre and as a nodal point within wider networks connecting the Aegean world and the Balkan hinterland.

Recently, the importance of Indian Traditional Knowledge System (ITKS) in the conservation and management of Cultural and Natural Heritage has been recognized, since the effective protection and sustainable conservation of TKS has recorded and enlisted by the World Heritage Systems (WHS). The Traditional Knowledge of Weaving, the Silk Handloom enriches the Commercial Practices and generated the Weaving Culture Heritages in Ancient Chanderi Township which exists between the Historical two Hindu States Malwa and Bundelkhand in Central India where the weaving practices begin in 2nd Century AD in Boodhi Chanderi (9 kms distance) and World famous Chanderi Saree Manufacturing and International Trading accelerated during 11th to 13th Century AD, when nearby Kosthi weavers of Jhansi State reached, settled in Chanderi Town and produced silk textile fabrics in bulk. The aim of the study is to elaborate the ITKS, Cultural Heritage and Economic Glory of Ancient India, and to preserve the TKS for Sustainable Growth and economic upliftment of society. The study indicates that the Indian Traditional knowledge of Textile manufacturing in ancient Chanderi town contributes largely to the conservation and management of Cultural Heritages and Closely related with the indigenous Handloom and Powerloom - Local Weavers Community. The existence of Indian Traditional Knowledge System (ITKS) of silk weaving and trade in Chanderi exhibits insight vision of Indian Heritages to promote the sustainable development with the present Global Knowledge and it needs Global Awareness.

Abstract The Catacombs of Kom el-Shoqafa in Alexandria, known as Treasure Hill, serve as a remarkable burial site and royal tomb dating back to the 2nd century AD. This archaeological site has been recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Medieval World. Throughout history, these catacombs have suffered from the effects of flash floods and seismic activity. As a result, they have experienced various degrees of damage and instability, which have worsened over time. It is well-documented that rising groundwater levels within the Catacombs, triggered by heavy rain or seawater intrusion, can significantly affect the seismic behavior of this historic underground structure. Furthermore, the presence of this groundwater alters the characteristics of earthquake motions, leading to considerable amplification and variability in seismic activity. This study employs geotechnical modeling and examines stress and deformation using the advanced PLAXIS software. Numerical simulations were carried out to investigate how flash floods and rising seawater levels, exacerbated by climate change, influence the seismic resilience of monumental underground edifices. The research identifies critical factors affecting seismic stability, deformation, and failure mechanisms, while highlighting areas of concern, and evaluating the present status of tomb stability. The results indicate that during significant earthquakes with a Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) above 0.24 g, the presence of groundwater tends to amplify the horizontal acceleration response across the upper, middle, and lower sections of the Catacombs, as well as impact the main load-bearing columns and piers situated on the second and third tiers. It was also observed that both horizontal and vertical displacement responses are greatly increased due to the severe seismic compressive and shear stresses that accompany substantial groundwater inundation of these subterranean structures. For minor earthquakes, specifically those with a PGA below 0.16 g, the effects of groundwater on the tomb responses are virtually insignificant. Thus, the influence of groundwater on the seismic behavior of underground structures becomes increasingly evident during larger earthquakes compared to smaller ones. In scenarios with elevated groundwater levels, co-seismic deformation is more pronounced. These findings provide crucial recommendations for future reinforcement and retrofitting initiatives and act as a valuable reference for assessing the stability of other complex underground structures worldwide.

A revision of archaeological collections obtained in the 1960s from the excavated eastern part of the Poltse I settlement on the Amur channel in the Jewish Autonomous Region, housed at the IAET SB RAS, has made it possible to assemble a number of organic samples for radiocarbon dating. Fifteen of these were analyzed at the Laboratory of Isotope Studies at the Core Facilities Center “Cenozoic Geochronology” of the IAET SB RAS. Dates were calibrated using the latest Calib8.1.0 version. Most calibrated dates form a relatively compact cluster, spanning an interval from the mid-2nd–early 1st century BC to the early 3rd century AD, concentrated in the interval before the 130s AD. Analysis of the calendar intervals indicates a foundation date in the latter half of the 1st century BC. The change of the settlement plan was due to natural factors causing the obsolescence of structures, which were presumably destroyed by fire in the 80s AD. New absolute dates suggesting that the settlement existed in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD are supported by archaeological finds which have parallels in contemporaneous cultures of northeastern China, Korea, the Amur Basin, and Primorye, dating to the XiongnuXianbei stage of East Asia.

Relevance. The relevance of this study is determined by its examination of the dramatic poem «Orgy» through a historical-receptive lens. This approach allows for the identification of the mechanisms behind the author’s interpretation of the historical period and the tracing of the specifics of the reception of Antiquity within the text. Aim. The aim of the article is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the dramatic poem «Orgy» by the Ukrainian writer and poet Lesia Ukrainka, utilizing the methodological framework of classical reception studies. It also seeks to identify the mechanisms and reveal the role of these historical borrowings in the context of the author’s vision of Antiquity as a whole, and specifically the Greco-Roman relations from the military conquest of Hellas to the era of the Second Sophistic (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD). Methodology. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity, characterized by an interdisciplinary approach. The theoretical and methodological framework relies on the principles of receptive aesthetics and the concepts of classical reception studies. The study also employs analytical, hermeneutic, and comparative-historical methods. Results. The study establishes that the specificity of the author’s interpretation of historical events, against which the main plot unfolds, lies in chronological hybridization – combining two temporal spaces to provide a deeper elucidation of Greco-Roman relations. It was found that the historical narrative in the work functions as a «safe distance» for constructing analogies between the past and the present. The history and specifics of the perception of Greek culture in the ancient world (from the 2nd century BC to the Second Sophistic period in the 2nd century AD) are examined. It is revealed that the reception of Greek culture by ancient Rome, as described in the text, is based on the principles of selectivity and pragmatism, utilized for cultural appropriation to achieve the political self-determination of the Roman elite and the legitimization of power by the Antonine dynasty emperors. The evolution of the concept of «orgy» in a historical context is analyzed: from a sacred ritual associated with the cult of Dionysus to its interpretation by the recipient – ancient Rome. It is established that throughout the plotline, there is a shift in semantic accents regarding the primary definition of the concept of «orgy», which indicates the conflict of Greek and Roman identities depicted in the work. Conclusions. The obtained results indicate that applying the methodology of classical reception allowed for a holistic disclosure of the mechanisms of assimilation and interpretation of ancient history in Lesia Ukrainka’s dramatic poem «Orgy». The study emphasizes that the author appeals to universal problems, actualizing the issue of Greco-Roman relations during Antiquity (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD) as a model of interaction between dominant and subjugated nations. The semantic transformation of the concept of «orgy» serves as a key marker demonstrating the specifics of the Roman reception of Greek culture. The proposed approach opens prospects for further studies of Antiquity in the context of classical reception within the writer’s creative heritage.

Background. The article presents a systematic analysis of the functioning of zoonyms in Achilles Tatius' novel "Leucippe and Clitophon" (2nd century AD), one of the most refined examples of Greek prose fiction. The relevance of the study lies in identifying the dominant zoonymic concepts that shape the figurative system of the work, perform rhetorical, intertextual, and emotional functions, and reflect cultural and philosophical generalizations of ancient worldview. The aim of the article is to describe the dominant zoonyms in the structure of the novel and to determine their role in the construction of the artistic discourse. Methods. The methodology combines lexical-semantic, stylistic, intertextual and quantitative analysis to establish the frequency and dominance of lexemes, as well as a typological approach to grouping zoonyms into semantic fields. Rhetorical-stylistic and cultural approaches made it possible to trace allusions, symbolism, and conceptual functions of zoonyms in the literary text. Results. The analysis revealed that the dominant zoonyms (ὁ ἵππος, τὸ θηρίον, ὁ ὄρνις, ὁ ὄφις, ὁ κώνωψ, ὁ ἰχθύς) perform multifaceted functions. The horse appears as a symbol of nobility, bodily passion, and social marking; the beast as a universal image of wildness, danger, and dehumanization; the bird as a bearer of sacred, aesthetic, and cosmological meanings; the snake as a metaphor of danger, erotic ambivalence, and transformation; the gnat as an emblem of rhetorical inversion and ironic heroization; the fish as an image of elemental threat, a metaphor of wealth, and harmonious coexistence. All these concepts are realized both in direct nominative and figurative meanings, forming a multidimensional figurative system of the novel. Conclusions. The study emphasizes that zoonyms in Achilles Tatius' novel are not limited to naming the animal world but become poetic structures that ensure the rhythmization of the narrative, visualization of events, creation of mythological allusions, and emotional involvement of the reader. They constitute a transitional link between literal and metaphorical usage, perform pragmatic functions, and reflect the anthropocentric character of ancient thought. Thus, dominant zoonyms form a unique conceptual sphere of the work, combining the real and the mythological, the corporeal and the symbolic, the individual and the universal.

The article discusses one of the most interesting and important topics in the philosophy of Middle Platonism, namely demonological issues, including the topic of the Socrates’ daimonion, in the writings of Apuleius of Madauros, one of the most important representatives of this trend of philosophy from the 2nd century AD. The issue of the historical sources of Apuleius’ demonology is also discussed. The author is of the opinion that the main source of Apuleius’ demonology were the works of Plato, alongside some influences from the beliefs of the Romans.

The article examines ceramic vessels discovered at a burial ground dating to the second half of the 2nd century AD at Kariv-I, located in the Sheptytskyi District of Lviv Region in Western Ukraine. The site was accidentally discovered in 2017, and during subsequent archaeological investigations, twelve cremation burials were uncovered. Among the burial inventory, ceramics form a significant group of finds, comprising approximately 30 items. These include both imported wares (fragments of Roman amphorae, red- and black-glazed pottery) and locally produced items (pots, bowls). The site was left by a population that migrated to the Western Bug region from the Middle Danube area during the Marcomannic Wars.

Issos Epiphaneia, located in the Cilicia Pedias plain, was an important ancient city sustained by agriculture and animal husbandry, while also serving as a strategic bridge along the land trade routes between Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Its harbor, Catabolos, became one of the central hubs of the Roman Empire’s grain corridor, functioning as a site where raw materials and grain were stored, shipped to Rome, and where travelers could find accommodation in mansiones. During the Byzantine and Medieval periods, Catabolos also served as a significant stop along the pilgrimage route stretching from Jerusalem to Bordeaux. In the 11th–13th centuries, Epiphaneia came under the control of the Crusader Kingdom and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, emerging as an important regional center. Archaeological evidence further reveals that the city was a notable production site for glazed ceramics during this period. The Bouleuterion-Odeon, originally constructed in the 2nd century AD during the Roman era, was reused as a cemetery in the Medieval period under Crusader and Armenian rule. Excavations have uncovered human burials and grave goods that provide insights into the cultural structure, socio-economic networks, trade relations and belief syspestas of the period. These findings reveal Epiphaneia’s central role in both the economic and religious life from the Roman period through the Middle Ages. They also show that the city’s cultural heritage holds significant potential for faith tourism, as it was located along a pilgrimage route in antiquity.

From the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD, the Han Dynasty (East Asian agricultural civilization) and the Roman Empire (Mediterranean maritime commercial civilization) rose at Eurasia’s two ends. To resist harassment from northern nomadic tribes like the Xiongnu, the Han established an inward-looking border defense system centered on the Great Wall. In contrast, the Roman Empire built an outward-looking system based on professional legions to address multi-front threats. This paper compares their core characteristics, analyzes the geographical, economic and political causes of differences, summarizes historical experiences, and provides reference for contemporary border governance.

Mosaic art emerged as one of the most prominent artistic media of the Roman period, reflecting the transformations in social and cultural life. While many of the themes recall earlier decorative traditions, such as those found on ceramics, from the 2nd century AD onwards a distinctive genre developed, focusing on the representation of the rustic lifestyle. This imagery was closely associated with the idealized model of aristocratic rural life, which centered on villa estates (villae rusticae) situated outside the urban sphere. In these mosaics, rural activities, particularly agriculture, animal husbandry, and related productive practices are the principal subjects. Scenes frequently depict the herding of livestock, the harvesting and collection of agricultural produce, and other aspects of estate management. Figures such as villa owners, estate stewards, and dependent laborers are also integral elements, often arranged in hierarchical compositions that mirror the social order of the countryside. The villa itself is typically represented as the focal backdrop, around which these activities are organized, thereby underscoring its role as both the physical and symbolic center of rural life. The earliest examples of this rustic imagery are attested along the North African coast, where they appear in mosaic pavements of the imperial period. From the 4th century AD, this visual repertoire spread eastward across the Mediterranean, reaching regions such as Anatolia. The mosaics of villae rusticae not only illustrate the ideals of rural aristocratic life but also provide valuable evidence for the integration of these estates into the wider networks of production and trade that sustained the Roman imperial economy.

The aim of this research is an iconographical and iconological analysis focused on the emblema with Eros and so-called “Psyche” from the Poseidon Villa at Zeugma. At a methodological level the mosaic has been duly contextualised in relation to the house and the site of origin, considering the other mosaics from the Poseidon Villa. For this purpose mosaics and other finds were analysed from both the eastern (Syria, Egypt) and western parts of the Roman Empire (Italy) passing through Greece. A new identification of the female figure (Psyche or Telete?) in the emblema from the Poseidon Villa was proposed. The Dionysiac context of the scene (Eros-Dionysus adolescent) was related to the presence of Dionysus in other mosaic panels from the house, highlighting the nuptial character of this representation and the role of Dionysus regarding the marriage rites (Cfr. the Dionysiac frieze of the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii and the Aldobandrini Wedding). In this perspective the identification of the so-called “Psyche” with a bride belonging to the human sphere has been proposed. But it is a human sphere that interacts closely with the divine one. The human bride next to Eros has a clothing, posture and attitude that is both modest and seductive, so as to evoke the famous Aphrodite Sosandra. This statuary type must have been well known in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, especially at Zeugma, as documented through the circulation of several copies, in the second half of the 2nd century AD. We suggest that the dominus-client perhaps must have been a Roman high-ranking army officer, belonging to the IV Legio Scythica and resident in a cosmopolitan context.

Introduction and Definition: Celiac Disease (CD) is an autoimmune disorder affecting the small intestine, triggered by an abnormal immune response to gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. Although its roots date back to the 2nd century AD, the condition was first identified by English physician Samuel Gee in 1888, who hypothesized dietary changes as beneficial. Today, the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases defines CD as "a chronic digestive and immune disorder that damages the small intestine". CD affects about 1% of the global population, yet about 80% of cases go undiagnosed. This significant underdiagnosis highlights the need for greater awareness and research, as delayed diagnosis can cause complications and reduce quality of life. Causes: Gluten consumption in individuals carrying the HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 genetic alleles causes inflammation in the small intestine, leading to villous atrophy (damage to nutrient-absorbing villi). Beyond genetics, environmental factors such as early-life gluten exposure, gastrointestinal infections, frequent early-life illnesses, and microbiome (digestive bacteria) changes may contribute to disease onset in some cases. Symptoms and Diagnosis: CD symptoms vary widely, ranging from digestive issues like diarrhea and bloating to nutrient malabsorption problems like anemia, as well as systemic effects including osteoporosis, mental health issues, and reproductive problems. Timely diagnosis can prevent complications and often begins with blood tests to detect elevated levels of antibodies, followed by biopsies of the small intestine to confirm villous atrophy. Treatment and Management: The only current treatment for CD is a lifelong gluten-free diet, essential for healing the small intestine and alleviating symptoms. While vitamin and mineral supplements may help manage deficiencies, they do not heal the intestine. Effective management involves educating patients about CD, providing regular medical monitoring, and offering support for the social and emotional challenges associated with the condition. Current Research: Ongoing research explores enzyme therapies, vaccines, and microbiome-targeted treatments to supplement the gluten-free diet. Latiglutenase, a combination of enzymes that break down gluten, shows promise in reducing intestinal damage and symptoms from accidental gluten exposure, a common issue for patients. It is being considered as a possible additional therapy for CD.

At the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city of Gytheion honored an Athenian citizen with the honorary titles of soter kai ktistes. The honored person was Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, the father of the famous sophist and millionaire. The article is an attempt to find an answer to the question of what Atticus did to deserve such an honor and what this title could have meant to him.

Archaeological work at Gabii in Italy has revealed burials in the settlement area dating to three different time periods: Iron Age, Archaic and Imperial. In this paper, we investigate the genetic characteristics of the people buried at Gabii, integrating mitochondrial DNA evidence with archaeological and historical contexts to address questions about community and population dynamics, such as whether biological lineages persisted through time and whether there were biological links among high-status and anomalous burials. We discovered that the people buried at Gabii showed biological links within but not between time periods. Although the majority of the skeletal remains of the individuals in this project were lost in a 2020 wildfire, future work using the genomic libraries prepared for this study is planned, provided that the endogenous aDNA content is sufficient for analysis.Online Supplementary MaterialsAppendix AAppendix B

Between the 2nd century BCE and the 16th century CE, the Silk Road emerged as a sprawling network not only facilitating commerce but also fostering deep cultural interactions among civilizations such as China, Persia, India, the Middle East, and Europe. This paper examines the dynamic cultural exchanges along the Silk Road through archaeological findings at significant sites like Gaochang, Niya, Hotan, and Quanzhou, as well as maritime discoveries such as the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck. By analyzing artifacts such as ceramics, religious relics, coins, and inscriptions, the study tracks the transmission of ideas, religions, art forms, and technological innovations across Eurasia. The research highlights the Silk Roads role as a channel of mutual influence, which integrated diverse cultures and left enduring legacies across the regions it connected. This archaeological investigation underscores how the Silk Road significantly shaped the cultural and intellectual landscape of the ancient world.

This study provides a short overview of the origins, evolution, and characteristics of monasticism in the Christian East during Late Antiquity. The first part examines the Christian ascetic movement from the 1st to the 2nd centuries AD which served as the basis for the development of monasticism. Then, the main monastic centers in the eastern regions of the ancient Christian world – Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, the city of Constantinople, and the diocese of Thrace – are described. The study outlines their distinctive characteristics and their key representatives, such as saints Anthony the Great, Pachomius the Great, and Macarius the Great in Egypt; Hilarion the Great, Gerasimus of the Jordan, Sabas the Sanctified, and Theodosius the Cenobiarch in Palestine; and Basil the Great in Cappadocia. The assessment confirms the view that monasticism emerged independently and almost simultaneously in several locations across the ancient Christian world (Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor). It also highlights the impact of the lives and teachings of certain monastic figures of the time on the development of monasticism in other provinces.

One of the significant tasks in folkloristics is clarifying the mechanisms through which plots and motifs migrate. To accomplish this successfully, we need a great deal of comparative material. The war between dwarves and birds is not included in the Aarne-Thompson index but is mentioned by Yu. Berezkin and Ye. N. Duvakin's classification system under K22 (“Cranes and Pygmies”). This plot is characterised by its ancient origins and widespread presence in Eurasia, the Americas, and Africa. Although researchers have noted its presence in Chinese geographical and encyclopaedic monuments, beginning with the “Shen Yi Jing” (“Canon of divine marvels”, late 2nd century AD), and several compilations of texts have been published, a general overview of these fragments has yet to be conducted. This article aims to provide such an overview. During the research, previously collected data was systematised. Duplicates arising from citing earlier sources in encyclopaedic compilations were removed, new materials were added and the structure of Chinese narratives about the war with migratory birds was established. The diversity of motifs contained within these narratives was demonstrated. To this end, comparative methods and textual analysis techniques were employed, including structural and motif-based analyses of sources. The scope of this research is limited to the chronological framework of early medieval China (from the end of the Han dynasty to the 15th century). Ancient sources do not describe conflicts between non-human peoples and predatory migratory birds, and later works may bear traces of the plot being reintroduced by Jesuits. The findings confirm the hypothesis that the plot was introduced to the Chinese tradition multiple times from various directions, in both concise and detailed forms. There is significant variability in motifs and plot details. In Chinese sources, the birds may be cranes, “see cranes”, or swans; the dwarves are referred to by different names; and there is no definitive information about the location of their country. The pygmies are depicted as either hunters or farmers. Some fragments do not mention any form of confrontation with the birds: the pygmies appear as passive victims. Expanding the search parameters in Chinese sources reveals additional examples of the plot's implementation.

The article presents plans of the Late Scythian Yuzhno-Donuzlav settlement (Northwestern Crimea) for the first time. Using materials from the 1960s–1970s, we can trace the evolution of the settlement’s layout from the last quarter of the 2nd century BC to the early 2nd century AD and compare it with other settlements in the region. The earliest Late Scythian structures at the Yuzhno-Donuzlav settlement likely consisted of annexes added to Greek buildings, all of which were protected by a fence. Between 110 BC and 60 BC, new multi-chamber houses were built, along with a rampart and ditch. From 60 BC to 20 AD, the settlement expanded beyond these defensive structures, with one of the new areas enclosed by its own fence. The main layout consisted of multi-chamber houses with similar orientations. After 20 AD, the area of the settlement decreased, and it began to consist of single-chamber dwellings. Overall, the Yuzhno-Donuzlav settlement resembles contemporary settlements in Northwestern Crimea but exhibits several notable differences. For example, the earliest Late Scythian defensive wall in the region was likely found here. Subsequently, the “suburb” of the settlement was surrounded by its own defensive fence, which is unusual for neighboring sites. There are other differences too, but these can likely be attributed to poor preservation, specific recording methods, and challenges in interpretation.