2nd Century BC Research Articles

Elite of «Loufan» tribe lived on the Ordos plateau and its connections with Zhao and Qin states

In the late 20 century, archaeologists discovered some burial sites of the barbarian elite in the Ordos Plateau dated to 3rd century BC (late Warring States period). Among them Aluchaideng, Sigoupan M2 and Nalingaotu tombs contained burial goods made of precious metals in the style of Pazyryk and Sagly cultures in Altai-Sayan mountain region. There were finials with figures of an upstanding eagle and a hoofed eagle-headed deer-horned phantastic animal with bird heads at the tips of its horns (“hoofed griffin”), a torc with lying animals facing each other. Other items with ‘hoofed griffin’ images and images of a griffin with deer horns and feline body were collected here. There were also ornaments with images of a ram with the twisted body wrapped around its head, ‘swirling’ griffinheads, rooster heads, waterfowls, full-face ‘smiling’ cat heads, flame-shaped figures with ‘commas’ inside. All of the above mentioned artifacts and images have exclusive analogies in Pazyryk culture. As far back as in 1999, the author suggested that the elite of Ordos nomads of 3rd century BC constituted common religious and, possibly, ethnic unity with the Pazyryk people. New discoveries of Pazyryk culture kurgans in the south of Mongolian Altai support a idea that the Ordos part of the Pazyryk people might have connected with Mountain Altai directly via Alashan and Transaltai Gobi stony deserts bypassing foreign peoples of Mongolian Plateau and the Hexi Corridor. According to Shiji, people (or its elite) occupying the Ordos Plateau since 4th–3rd up to late 2nd centuries BC were known by the name “Loufan”, and in early 3rd century BC the Loufan people were controlled by the state of Zhao. As the written sources and archaeological evidence suggest, in the 3rd century BC, the north-east part of the Ordos Plateau (where the burials in question are located) was the area claimed by Zhao and Qin states; therefore, the barbarian tribes of the north-east of the Ordos Plateau should have been closely intertwined with these states. These relations are proven by Pazyryk-Ordos style artifacts manufactured in Qin and Zhao and found in barbarian tombs, as well as similar objects discovered in the Qin, Zhao and Yan territories. In Sigoupan M2 tomb were found such items bearing Chinese inscriptions of Zhao and Qin states. A large number of similar inscribed artifacts manufactured in Zhao found in Xinzhuantou M30 noble tomb in the Lower Capital of Yan state. It supports the theory that the Ordos barbarians were called Loufan, since as per written sources, Loufan people were included in both Zhao’s and Yan’s administrative systems. Some items identical to the M30 artifacts were found in tombs of Zhao dynasty members in Handan. In tomb of bronze caster of late Warring States period in Xi’an were found ceramic models made for casting bronze or gold decorative plaques in Pazyryk-Ordos style. However, some pictures in this style were represented on artifacts found in the tomb of Qin State Queen Dowager Xia (died in 240 BC). Artifacts with images of “hoofed griffin” are found among Qin state artifacts in Shuihude M47 and Shangwangqun M1 tombs dated to late Warring States period. Moreover, in Xi’an were also found two roof tile-ends with images of a sacred Pazyryk ‘hoofed griffin’ with twisted body. These tiles obviously belonged to luxurious mansion of Warring States period. These artifacts suggest that the Ordos Loufans did not only maintained cultural communication with the Qin state, but also became part of its people.

Номенклатура металлов и сплавов из сарматских могильников Нижнего Поволжья II в. до н.э. – первой половины II в. н.э. по данным РФА

The work presents the results of an analysis of the chemical composition of 82 objects from non-ferrous and precious metals dating from the 4th century BC – the first half of the 2nd century AD and originating from the excavation of funeral monuments located in the Lower Volga region. Basically, the analysis of the chemical composition of non-ferrous metal was carried out for objects characteristic of the ordinary population of the region: mirrors, jewelry, clothing or household items, and details of horse harnesses; importantly, sampling was random. The data obtained by the XRF method are very interesting and demonstrate a change in the nomenclature of leading alloys. So, for the period of the 2nd century BC – the border of eras, there is a significant number of objects from tin as well as from tin-lead bronze, with a slight presence of products from a multicomponent alloy, an alloy with arsenic. For the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD, there is a significant change in the leading types of alloys: zinc-containing alloys such as two- and three-component brass dominate the sample; also significantly increased the share of triple bronze, highly alloyed with lead; there are also products made of copper and tin bronze. Silver products made of silver from different samples are present in all stages. Analysis of alloying components and impurities in the identified alloys made it possible to distinguish in the sample of the 2nd century BC –the border of eras, the influence of the North Caucasian center of non-ferrous metalworking; recorded changes in the nomenclature of alloys of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD arose, most likely, under the influence of the North Black Sea center of non-ferrous metalworking. The presence of high-zinc brass objects in the sample during the period of the 1st – the first half of the 2nd century AD also does not exclude the receipt of this type of brass from the production center located in Central Asia, which is characterized by an extremely high zinc content in the alloy.

«Общее право» и «общий суд» на Крите в эпоху эллинизма

Certain evidence demonstrates that in the League of Cretans in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, there was a Code (diagramma) — the only known example of a set of rules of tort and procedural law that was in force on the territory of the entire federation of Greek poleis. The Code contained rules for calculating monetary compensation for an offense, and also regulated the procedure for conducting a trial regarding a delict committed by a citizen of one Cretan city against a citizen of another, or against a foreigner. To consider such cases, a “general court” (koinodikion) was created in Crete, which apparently consisted of representatives of different poleis. The League of Cretans, thus, sought to ensure that conflicts between citizens of different communities of Crete were settled in a uniform and civilized way and would not undermine the unity and stability of the entire federation.

러시아 알타이 산악지대 얄로만-2 흉노 유적의 특징과 의의

In this paper, we consider the overall characteristics of the Yaloman site located in the Altai mountainous region and how to interpret the Xiongnu relics. Although the Xiongnu left no written language or records, they established the first nomadic empire and led a splendid culture. Although they are sometimes depicted as a barbaric group leading invasions in Chinese literature, they played a role as a mediator for Eastern and Western cultures throughout Eurasia. At the Yaloman-2 site, the Bulankovin culture coexisted, and before that, the Pazyryc culture was established. What is interesting is that the belt decoration culture that appears here does not follow the traditions of the Pazyryk culture that existed before. Many of the artifacts are quite similar to those found in Xiongnu site along the coast of Mongolia and Transbaikal. If so, it is possible to reach the conclusion that the central date could be from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. As a result, the metal crafts identified at the Yaloman-2 site can be understood as representing the value of works of art while the cultural traditions of the Xiongnu in Central Asia. Most of the artifacts were made using materials from South Siberia, and some were made as imitations. Things like a lizard biting its own tail are believed to be imitations of the original Xiongnu. Those with dragon heads clearly prove that they accepted foreign culture and played a major role in East-West cultural exchange.

Heureux qui, comme Ulysse, a fait un bon voyage: Invoking the deities of the roads in the Latin west

AbstractThe control of the Mediterranean and its surroundings by the conquering Roman Republic after the victory over Carthage, and later over the Hellenistic kingdoms throughout the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, notably increased connectivity and the movement of people. This paper focuses on the wide range of ritual instruments, above all the propitiation of the gods through sacrifices, in the face of journeys in general, and on the diverse religious resources documented in the epigraphy of the Latin West.

Plataean Remembrances

This article focuses, in a regressive approach going back in time from the Imperial to the Classical period, on the physical markers which became places of commemoration on the territory of Plataea after 479, and their significance in terms of the memory of the battle and the persistence (or otherwise) of a Panhellenic landscape. These markers fall into three categories: trophies, the altar of Zeus Eleutherios, and the graves of fallen soldiers. Trophies, initially ephemeral monuments celebrating a victory, were monumentalised before 380 BC to become concrete manifestations of Panhellenic values. The punctual sacrifice to Zeus Eleutherios on the agora was perpetuated by the construction of a marble altar and was enriched by the addition of a goddess, Homonoia, at least in the Hellenistic period, but perhaps as early as the end of the 5th century BC. Finally, the tombs of dead soldiers were the object of sacrifices that seemed to change in nature between the Classical and Imperial periods, with the enagismos ritual so well described by Plutarch. Two ceremonies are also discussed, the Eleutheria and the dialogos, which further encapsulate the memorial importance of the battle, perhaps as early as the end of the 4th century BC for the contest and the end of the 2nd century BC for the dialogos.

To A More Precise Placement in Space and Time of the Hoard Discovery from Grăniceri, Arad County

The synthesis publications dedicated to ancient coin finds made on the current territory of Romania mention the hoard from Grăniceri (Arad County), consisting of 120 tetradrachms of Thasos. It’s a discovery made by chance that happened in the 19th century. So far, the exact location and date of discovery of this hoard have not been established with any precision. However, by correlating the information from primary sources with the maps of that time and the data provided by Lidar scans, we believe that we have identified where this discovery was made. Starting from here, we have developed a discussion of how these deposits can be interpreted, referring to the theories widely accepted by scientists. At the same time, for the basins of the Crişul Alb and Crişul Negru rivers (only their segments in Arad county) we have drawn up a map of the hoards finds dating back to the 2nd century BC – 1st century AD in relation to the contemporary settlements.

The Non-government Trade Between the Western Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu in the 2nd Century BCE

The Non-government Trade Between the Western Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu in the 2nd Century BCE

Unveiling Messapic Funerary Discourse

Messapic, an ancient language from the 6th to the 2nd century BC in Southern Italy, remains a linguistically enigmatic and poorly understood entity, has been traditionally classified as an extinct language. Current scholarship predominantly views Messapic epigraphy as primarily consisting of personal names, anthroponyms, and theonyms. However, attempts to linguistically classify and interpret it within the broader framework of Greek, Latin, or other ancient languages have yielded limited insights. This article investigates Messapic epigraphy as a potential descendant of Proto-Albanian and reveals intriguing parallels with classical Albanian. The chosen exemplars challenge the prevailing assumption that Messapic is an extinct language, presenting it in a new light and underscoring its enduring linguistic and cultural legacy. This is notably exemplified through a distinctive funerary discourse that serves as a hallmark of the Messapic language.

The impact of climate change on the agriculture and the economy of Southern Gaul: New perspectives of agent-based modelling.

What impact did the Roman Climate Optimum (RCO) and the Late Antique Little Ice Age (LALIA) have on the rise and fall of the Roman Empire? Our article presents an agent-based modelling (ABM) approach developed to evaluate the impact of climate change on the profitability of vineyards, olive groves, and grain farms in Southern Gaul, which were the main source of wealth in the roman period. This ABM simulates an agroecosystem model which processes potential agricultural yield values from paleoclimatic data. The model calculates the revenues made by agricultural exploitations from the sale of crops whose annual volumes vary according to climate and market prices. The potential profits made by the different agricultural exploitations are calculated by deducting from the income the operating and transportation costs. We conclude that the warm and wet climate of the Roman period may have had an extremely beneficial effect on the profitability of wine and olive farms between the 2nd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, but a more modest effect on grain production. Subsequently, there is a significant decrease in the potential profitability of farms during the Late Antique Little Ice Age (4th-7th century CE). Comparing the results of our model with archaeological data enables us to discuss the impact of these climatic fluctuations on the agricultural and economic growth, and then their subsequent recession in Southern Gaul from the beginning to the end of antiquity.

Temple Dedication and Construction Texts of the Ancient Near East with Elapsed Years: Implications for Long Duration Chronologies

Ancient texts dedicating or commemorating temples that can be associated with archaeological remains such as architecture and inscriptions, along with identifiable kings who built or commemorated those temples and the specification of the elapsed number of years from a past event, are known from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant over the span of several centuries. Although the texts originate from differing religious, cultural, and geographic contexts and were recorded on various mediums, the similarity in content, style, and objective indicates a shared tradition and allows the grouping of these texts into a distinctive category. These temple construction and dedication texts document a king or kings involved in the construction, reconstruction, or remembrance of a temple, a deity with whom the temple was connected, the location of the temple, and the specific number of years elapsed between construction or dedication and another significant cultural or religious event. Known examples come from Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Phoenicia, and Israel, spanning the 13th to the 2nd centuries BC, along with a text from ancient Rome that was likely influenced by this practice. Because the kings named are known from various historical documents and inscriptions, archaeological remains related to the temples have often been recovered; since the construction or dedication texts record elapsed years in reference to another event, these texts can be analyzed in regard to their viability as sources for the history and chronology of the ancient Near East in the context of religion and official records of the state. Investigation of these texts alongside king lists and temples reveals that temple construction and dedication texts of the ancient Near East that included mention of elapsed years provide valuable, detailed, and accurate information that can be used to identify the existence of ancient temples in time, corroborate periods of kingship or other important events, and contribute to understanding a method of historical chronology used by the ancients.

Metallographic study of non-ferrous metal products from the Maray 1 site of the Baitovo Cul-ture in the Lower Ishim River region

The article examines non-ferrous metal products from the Baitovo Culture materials of the Early Iron Age hillfort of Marai 1. This settlement is located in the forest-steppe of the Ishim River region of Western Siberia. The upper building hori-zon marks the settlement of the Baitovo Culture dating to the 4th–2nd centuries BC. Metallographic analysis of 28 items was carried out using the Axio Observer D1m microscope (Zeiss). As a result, eight technological schemes characteristic for the metalworking activities of the Baitovo population have been identified. The study shows that prevailing were smithing tech-nologies in different temperature regimes for the production of non-ferrous metal objects (16 specimens, 57.2 %). The pref-erence was given to hot forging in the red-heat regime at 600–800°C (7 specimens, 25 %), cold forging with annealing (5 specimens, 17.8 %), as well as incomplete hot forging at 300–500°C (3 specimens, 10.7 %). Casting without further refine-ment was recorded in the microstructures of arrowheads, ingots and splashes (9 specimens, 14.2 %). Casting, followed by a slight degree of deformation (20–30 %), was noted in three cases. This scheme correlates with the metalworking traditions of the Itkul and Krasnoozerskaya Cultures, and it was dominant on the territory of the Tobol-Ishim region during the Early Iron Age. Such a low percentage of items related to it could be explained by the absence in Marai 1 of large items cast in moulds needing further refinement (knives, celts, etc.). A microstructural study confirmed the use of pure oxidized copper by the craftsmen of the Baitovo Culture, with characteristic inclusions of Cu–Cu2O eutectic, associated with the Ural production centres. Arrowheads and an ingot made of pure oxidized copper were probably a direct import from the territory of the Itkul Culture. Low-alloy tin and arsenic bronzes, coming from the metal production centres of Kazakhstan and Altai, were also used to the same extent for production of some tools and jewellery. The correlation between the type of product, composition of raw materials and technology of its manufacture has been revealed, which is most clearly manifested in arrowheads and awls. The use of high temperatures and significant degrees of compression (80–90 %) has been recorded in a number of cases, resulting in the appearance of rejects. Cracks of hot brittleness, as well as of cold brittleness, occurred in the process of technological cycle, carried out with an excess of the tensile strength of the metal.

영남지방 초기 국의 등장 배경과 사로국 구조

Through the long-distance trade network and ritual structures of base settlements that were intensively developed in the Yeongnam region in the 2nd century BC, the background of the establishment of the early politics and the method of solidarity were examined. Long-distance trade beyond the Yeongnam region is concentrated in the 2nd century BC, and the bases where foreign trade is active overlap with regions(mainly Daegu, Gyeongsan, and Gyeongju) found in the early days of the clustering of wooden tombs. In some regions, politics that internally united regional units appeared in order to form a socio- economic coalition suitable for logistics distribution, redistribution, cost reduction, and information solidarity amid intensively developed foreign trade in the 2nd century BC. Thus, it is inferred that the clustering of wooden tombs appeared from the time when these early politics reached villages and townships as local political bodies to maintain active foreign trade, iron production, and distribution. In this situation, by linking topographic conditions, traffic routes and literature records, and archaeological data, focusing on Saro-guk, the composition of the euprak and the structure of the country were explained. Around the middle of the 2nd century BC, it is expected that the early Saroguk was established, and it is interpreted that the 6 villages, symbolized as major towns and villages, were united through the conference. Early Saroguk is a device that binds and maintains local communities while showing various forms for each town and village, and the phenomenon of establishing altar-style stone tombs, high- altitude enclosure, standing-ritual structures, and early wooden tombs by base is similar. In addition, the title of ChaChawoong, which was mentioned in early literature records, also weighed on the ideological and religious power base. Given the ritual structure of the settlement base and the power base of the early ruler, it was difficult to sustain the national structure only by pursuing the interests of foreign trade, and it is assumed that even by transforming the traditionally important megalithic monuments and high-altitude enclosure, it led to community cohesion.

고고자료로 본 변·진한의 기원과 다호리집단의 재검토

This study intended to examine the origin and establishment of Byeonhan and Jinhan based on its organic relationship with the late Bronze Age. The Byeonhan region can be discussed in relation to the Songguk-ri cultural area and the Jinhan region, to the Geomdan-ri cultural area. The Songguk-ri cultural area can be viewed as a vertical society due to the advancement of class differentiation, while the Geomdan-ri cultural area is presumed to be a horizontal society with weak class differentiation. The old Byeonhan site shows the characteristic of large dolmen construction following the introduction of the slender bronze dagger culture in the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, while the old Jinhan site, where class differentiation was relatively weak, clearly shows the transition to wooden coffin graves in relation to immigrants around the 2nd to 1st centuries BC. The Byeonhan region shows traces of cultural homogeneity spreading through sea routes along the southern coast of Gyeongsangnam-do since the late Bronze Age. The Changwon Daho-ri Group, which had the largest number of wooden coffin grave groups in the Byeonhan region, was identified as a ‘port city state’ based on geopolitical location and excavated artifacts.

A new algorithm for using Pb isotopes to determine the provenance of bullion in ancient Greek coinage

A new algorithm is proposed that uses Pb isotopes to help identify the ore deposits utilized as sources of silver in Antiquity. The algorithm takes natural and analytical isotope fractionation into account. It proposes a statistical measure of the distances between the Pb isotope compositions of ores and artifacts. This measure is amenable to statistical tests at any confidence level. The new algorithm is applied to the Pb isotope compositions of the end-members derived from 368 new Pb isotope data on silver coinage minted between the late 6th to late 2nd centuries BCE and presented in Albarede et al. (2024). The algorithm identifies the local sources expected for the mints associated with major silver ores found in the territories of Athens, Thasos, and Thrace, while demonstrating that Thrace, Northern Macedonia, and Chalkidiki supplied notable amounts of bullion to Aegina and Ptolemaic Egypt. Minor proportions of what we are designating an old Sardinian ‘mix' created by long-distance trade was used by archaic Athens, Corinthia (Corinth and surrounding city-states), and Aegina. Various islands in the Cyclades (Siphnos, Keos, Seriphos) also appear to be early contributors to archaic Corinthian and Macedonian silver. The present study clearly demonstrates that recycled and mixed bullion formed a substantial part of the silver stocks of mints. The new algorithm warrants more detailed Pb isotopic studies of well-dated coinage to document the changing nature of silver fluxes over time.

Archaic Cretan Inscriptions: Texts or Things?

Archaic Crete has recently received much attention from historians and epigraphers (Seelentag, 2015; Gagarin & Perlman, 2016). Both these works recognise that Cretan legal inscriptions are both things and texts: what matters is not only what the Greek words on the inscriptions say but also how and where they were set up (in or near sanctuaries, sometimes forming part of the fabric of temples) and what the words are written on (generally stone). This paper explores further the role of inscriptions as things and considers the “biography” (sensu Kopytoff, 1986) of three of them: the Dreros kosmos inscription (Gagarin & Perlman, 2016, 200–7); the Praisos Eteocretan inscription (IC 3.6.1); and the Gortyn Law Code itself (IC 4.72). In all cases the archaeological context matters. In both Praisos (Bosanquet, 1902) and Dreros (Gaignerot Driessen, 2013) the inscriptions were deliberately destroyed when their respective political communities were brought to an end in the 2nd century BCE—a fact which demonstrates their symbolic importance for these two political communities. The Gortyn Law Code however was not destroyed but later incorporated into a Roman Odeion. This surely has implications for our understanding of social memory in ancient Crete.

On the Origin of Federal Institutions of Hellenistic Lykia

The Lykian koinon that existed in the south of Asia Minor from the first half of the 2nd century BCE, had a federal organization, in many ways reminiscent of the structure of other federations of the Hellenistic world, especially that of the Achaian koinon. The Lykians may have deployed the Achaian-type organization of the supreme federal authority, namely a crowded meeting of delegations, the size of which depended on the cities’ dimensions. Some de-tails of the Achaian military organization could have been borrowed by the Lykians, as evi-denced by the rare title of the commander of the city militia in both federations (apoteleios). The same system of proportional representation of cities in the ratio 3:2:1 existed both in Lykia, where it determined the share of participation of each city in all the federal affairs, and in the board of nomographoi of the Achaian koinon. However, the Lykian koinon was not entire-ly built on the Achaian “model”. In the Achaian koinon, the ratio of 3:2:1 probably did not have the same universal meaning as in Lykia, the head of the federation had both military and administrative powers, while in Lykia they were divided between the Lyciarch and the strate-gos. Some similarities in the organization of both leagues can be explained by the fact that the Lykians could use some principles and practices that were widespread in many Greek koina. Some features of the structure of the Lykian koinon could well be the result of the original po-litical creativity of the Lykians.

마한의 시작과 만경강, 그리고 금마

In the Mangyeong River basin, one can observe the establishment, development, integration, and disappearance of the early Iron Age culture from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC to the turn of the era. Representative material cultures of this period include clay pottery, long bronze swords, and iron products found nationwide. The region, especially the Mangyeong River basin, was at the core of the early Iron Age culture, where bronze production technology rapidly advanced, and primitive iron culture coexisted. Notably, the areas with the highest density of relics are in present-day Iksan, Wanju, and Jeonju. A significant shift occurred in the 2nd century BC. In the first half of this century, based on the technology exemplified by bell-shaped vessels, bronze-making technology peaked, establishing the area as a center of importance. In the latter half, the size of relics grew, social stratification accelerated, and bronze burial mounds with vast artifacts disappeared, replaced by the appearance of iron artifacts. Thus, the symbols of power for the top ruling class, represented by long bronze swords, shifted to iron, reflecting a change in the societal structure. The most pivotal point in the early Iron Age can be pegged to the 2nd century BC, which is directly linked to the arrival of King Jun.
 Relics related to the time of King Jun's arrival are most densely distributed in Iksan, Wanju, and Jeonju. If we categorize based on the distribution pattern of the relics, rather than the current administrative districts, the areas can be divided into: the western region of Miruksan centered on Hamyeol, Hwangdeung, and Osan; the western region of Hwangbangsan and southern region of Miruksan centered on Geumma, Wanggung, and the western Wanju; and the area covering Jeonju and the eastern Hwangbangsan, including Jeonjucheon and Gosancheon streams. The central points of these regions can be redefined as Iksan, Geumma, and Jeonju. While many tasks remain to be addressed, based on currently available literary records and archaeological investigations, the area with the highest concentration of relics from the 2nd century BC related to King Jun's arrival can be identified as the Geumma.

고구려 암문토기의 기원 연구

This paper is to examine the origin of dark burnished marks, a distinctive feature of Koguryo Pottery. Dark burnished marks is a decorative pattern in which the surface of pottery with intricate designs using a sturdy tool, It is primarily found in pottery of northern ethnic groups such as Xiongnu, Xianbie, Koguryo, Balhae, and Khitan. In Koguryo, dark burnished marks appeared in the late mid-period when the use of fine clay became widespread. It is characterized by relatively simple pattern motifs like horizontal lines, square shapes, vertical lines, and continuous ring patterns, inscribed in various locations including the body of pottery. It is primarily found in relatively large and medium-sized vessels, such as jar, large jar, steamer, and large bowl. Dark burnished marks is not a decorative technique that originated in Koguryo. It was also found in Xiongnu pottery, which preceded Koguryo, as well as in the Three Yan or Northern Wei dynasty of pottery, which had close relationships with Koguryo. Xiongnu pottery was popular in the northern steppes, including Mongolia, from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Therefore, it is not directly related to the origin of dark burnished marks in Koguryo pottery. The Xiongnu had a significant influence on the development of Xianbei pottery culture. Dark burnished marks has been confirmed in Xianbei pottery from the 3rd century. It is difficult to establish a direct relationship between the pottery of Koguryo in the middle period and that of the Three Yan. This is due to differences not only in basic forms but also in aspects such as the types of vessels with dark burnished marks, the preferred locations of the application, and the preference for patterns. However, it is reasonable to understand the origin of dark burnished marks on Koguryo pottery in the context of the material culture exchange between Koguryo and the Murong Xianbei, who constantly competed for control of the Liaodong region from the 4th to the early 5th centuries. This is also the case with the introduction of mural tombs in Koguryo. It is likely that dark burnished marks of Koguryo pottery was the result of selective adoption of some elements, such as
 the ark burnished marks technique that has been passed down from the Xiongnu, rather than the formal elements of pottery, in the context of various forms of cultural exchange with the Three Yan.

Humour in the Special Features of the Costumes in the Comedies by Plautus

The article aims to discuss these elements of costumes which are mentioned in the comedies of Plautus but have been omitted yet in the studies on Plautine stage conventions. The first part of the text concerns the costumes which are worn by actors representing characters that have some special physical features. It appears that drunk characters always wear garlands, which point to their state. Big-bellied costumes are worn by male actors who play pregnant women (Alcmene in Amphitruo) but by those who present pimps during the performance, as well. Moreover, many Plautine slaves are rendered as stout, which, combined with big feet, adds much humour to running-slave scenes. The source of laughter lies not only in the padding used to recreate a big belly but also to show the illusion of large breasts, which are exaggerated in size. Such costumes were worn by male actors who presented meretrices, tibicinae and nutrices on stage. The costumes of foreigners consisted of a tunic with long sleeves, earrings, a headdress called causea, tiara and some kind of sandals. Many of these elements were grotesque, which, on the one hand, helped to increase the visibility of the costumes in the theatre, and on the other, contributed to the comicality of the performance. The article presents passages from the Plautine plays which contain such metatheatrical remarks about costumes used in the 3rd and 2nd century BC.