Recent surveys of textile tools in Southern Portuguese Iron Age contexts have shown that they can be found in a variety of functional contexts. However, and while the significance of such tools in domestic and religious contexts has already been discussed, the meaning of their presence in funerary settings remains to be fully explored. Ten funerary sites, ranging in date from the mid-7th to the late 3rd/ early 2nd century BCE have nonetheless yielded textile tools, with a preponderance of spindle whorls over loom weights. A critical assessment of the data from those sites shows some revealing trends regarding the functional parameters of the tools and their position in the tombs but, most importantly, the gender and status of the deceased which they accompanied. Despite the low resolution of data, a tendential association with female burials can be posited, and at least some instances of textile tools in relatively high-status tombs can be noted. However, these funerary assemblages offer little to no evidence of craft specialization. These trends can usefully be compared to the available explanatory hypotheses put forward to explain the deposition of textile tools in tombs. Such an exercise suggests a complex, multi-layered meaning for these objects, which sum-up ideas about gender norms, gendered practices, status, and most likely also religious beliefs.

Abstract The study provides a radiocarbon sequence for the Iron Age occupation in the elevated areas of the Phoenician settlement of Lisbon, located in the Tagus estuary (Portugal). The dataset is based in ten animal and human samples recovered during archaeological excavations at Largo de Santa Cruz do Castelo. These samples are associated with distinct phases of the Iron Age, dated by the ceramic findings between the 7th and 5th century BCE, as well as a latter sample from the Roman Republican Period (2nd half of the 2nd century BCE). Despite the challenges posed by the 1st millennium BCE radiocarbon calibration, this dataset proves valuable for establishing a more detailed chronological framework. It represents a significant contribution to refining the timeline of Lisbon’s Iron Age settlement and provides a stronger basis for interpreting local developments within the broader regional context.

Relevance. The relevance of this study is determined by its examination of the dramatic poem «Orgy» through a historical-receptive lens. This approach allows for the identification of the mechanisms behind the author’s interpretation of the historical period and the tracing of the specifics of the reception of Antiquity within the text. Aim. The aim of the article is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the dramatic poem «Orgy» by the Ukrainian writer and poet Lesia Ukrainka, utilizing the methodological framework of classical reception studies. It also seeks to identify the mechanisms and reveal the role of these historical borrowings in the context of the author’s vision of Antiquity as a whole, and specifically the Greco-Roman relations from the military conquest of Hellas to the era of the Second Sophistic (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD). Methodology. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity, characterized by an interdisciplinary approach. The theoretical and methodological framework relies on the principles of receptive aesthetics and the concepts of classical reception studies. The study also employs analytical, hermeneutic, and comparative-historical methods. Results. The study establishes that the specificity of the author’s interpretation of historical events, against which the main plot unfolds, lies in chronological hybridization – combining two temporal spaces to provide a deeper elucidation of Greco-Roman relations. It was found that the historical narrative in the work functions as a «safe distance» for constructing analogies between the past and the present. The history and specifics of the perception of Greek culture in the ancient world (from the 2nd century BC to the Second Sophistic period in the 2nd century AD) are examined. It is revealed that the reception of Greek culture by ancient Rome, as described in the text, is based on the principles of selectivity and pragmatism, utilized for cultural appropriation to achieve the political self-determination of the Roman elite and the legitimization of power by the Antonine dynasty emperors. The evolution of the concept of «orgy» in a historical context is analyzed: from a sacred ritual associated with the cult of Dionysus to its interpretation by the recipient – ancient Rome. It is established that throughout the plotline, there is a shift in semantic accents regarding the primary definition of the concept of «orgy», which indicates the conflict of Greek and Roman identities depicted in the work. Conclusions. The obtained results indicate that applying the methodology of classical reception allowed for a holistic disclosure of the mechanisms of assimilation and interpretation of ancient history in Lesia Ukrainka’s dramatic poem «Orgy». The study emphasizes that the author appeals to universal problems, actualizing the issue of Greco-Roman relations during Antiquity (2nd century BC – 2nd century AD) as a model of interaction between dominant and subjugated nations. The semantic transformation of the concept of «orgy» serves as a key marker demonstrating the specifics of the Roman reception of Greek culture. The proposed approach opens prospects for further studies of Antiquity in the context of classical reception within the writer’s creative heritage.

The use of medicinal herbs for treatment of illnesses is as old as humanity. Herbs have a long history, which is lost through the ages. Herbs are plants that are used in cooking as well as in medicine. The knowledge of the healing properties of these herbs were transferred from generation to generation through ancient sources, which mentioned medicinal plants from Babylon, China, India, Egypt and Ancient Greece. The first references for the use of herbs for treatment start from Egyptian papyri as far back as the 2nd century BC, but also from the texts of Homer, Hesiod, Asclepius, Dioscorides, Hippocrates and Aristotle, as well as references in the Orphic Epics. In surviving ancient sources are recorded the uses of herbs in medicine-pharmacology, composing the search¬ing grounds for modern day researchers. The purpose of this study is the investigation and presentation of the uses of herbs as medicine, which contributed to the dis¬covery of new aspects of pharmacology. The uses of me¬dicinal herbs as pharmaceutical means of treatment re¬sulted in the discovery of previously unknown areas of pharmacology. These ancient texts caused scholars to research the components of the herbs, in order to dis¬cover, study and spread their effectiveness in treating ill¬nesses. Many lab studies proved the efficacy of their us¬age both by themselves and in combination with other herbs and pharmaceutical products in treating illnesses. This study examines five characteristic herbs - dill, basil, echinacea, lavender and linseed, whose bioactive prop¬erties significantly contribute to improving patients’ health and well-being. Thus, it is noted that herbs laid the foundations for modern therapeutic medicine-pharmacology, which through technology and science, was perfected. There is a steadily growing trend towards incorporating natural herbs in complementary medicine, alongside the traditional therapeutic approach. In this way, the overall effectiveness of the treatment improves and the occurrence of unwanted side effects is reduced. It can be concluded that herbs are the basis of modern pharmacology and therapeutic medicine, which, with the help of technology and scientific progress, has evolved and been perfected, while also retaining the timeless value of natural medical tradition.

The İDÇ necropolis, one of the southern necropoleis of Kyme, constitutes the subject of this study. Between 2008 and 2011, a total of 618 graves comprising both cremation/urn burials and inhumations were unearthed in the necropolis. Among the inhumation burials, various grave types were identified, such as Carved Cist, Roof Tile, Simple Earth, Stone Cist, Sarcophagus, Amphora and Pithos graves. The studies indicate that the necropolis was in use over an extended period, from the 7th century BC to the end of the 2nd century BC. The grave types have been analysed by period, evaluating which types remained in use, which ones disappeared, and which ones emerged as new types during each respective period. On the other hand, a comparative analysis of the grave types with other necropolises of Kyme and other necropolises in different regions has been made. As a result, it has been determined that carved cist graves are not found outside Aiolis and represent a grave type unique to the region. In addition, the contrast between the simple architecture of these graves and their finds has led to diverse social and economic conclusions. The study demonstrates that a direct correlation between grave architecture and grave finds does not always exist, and that graves with simple construction can also yield rich finds. In conclusion, the İDÇ Necropolis is among the important necropoleis of Kyme not only for its variety of grave types but also for the richness of its finds. In this regard, the introduction of the Necropolis to the broader archaeological community is expected to contribute to the ongoing studies in this field.

The emergence of the Mahan Bungumyo society is estimated to be around the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, but the time when the Bungumyo society began to form in earnest can be seen as around the 3rd century AD. The pattern of Bungumyo, which had been distributed sporadically before, spreads throughout from the Han River to the Haenam Peninsula. In the Mangyeong River area, it is estimated that the first Bungumyo appeared in Sangun- ri, Wanju, and is believed to be around the first century BC, when the previous integrated togwang(a wooden coffin)tomb society declined. After the third century A.D., Bungumyo communities appeared throughout the Mangyeong River area, forming a full-fledged Bungumyo society. The main characteristic of the Bungu tomb during this period is the appearance of multiple burial facilities such as earthenware coffin and togwang tombs in one Bungu. When the types of multiple burial in the Mangyeong River area are largely classified, they are divided into the centered burial on the multiple burial, the non-centered burial subject, and the multiple burial through expansion. The first two types co-exist without any time difference, and it is understood that the multiple burial type through expansion occurred at a later time. The multiple burial type through expansion is thought to be a phenomenon in which the efficiency of the creation of the Bungumyo according to the development of society is reflected in the tomb. The Mahan Bungumyo society in the Mangyeong River area at the time examined through Bungumyo is presumed to be a village-centered community society similar to the traditional farming society in the past. There is no clear hierarchy between the burial facilities in Bungumyo, which requires a lot of labor, and a large-scale Bungu is created, but the aspect of burial facilities and burial relics is poor. These characteristics are difficult to understand as tombs for individual influential people or influential groups. Therefore, it can be presumed that Bungumyo Shrine at that time played a role in maintaining a village-centered community by developing mutual bonds and integration while creating a village's common grave together as a member or village cemetery. It is also confirmed that a common ritual was made through the special shape of earthenware, such as the Chukdong bungumyo, Gyenam Bungumyo. The timing of changes in the Bungumyo of the community society overlaps with the influx of Baekje-based material culture and the period of Baekje's entry into Mangyeong River area the after the mid-to-late 4th century. The burial aspect of Baekje relics in earnest in the Mangyeong River area can be seen from the late 4th to 5th centuries, and during this period, the amount of relics buried was abundant, and the hierarchy of the subject was clearly observed through special facilities or dignified items in the burial facilities. The type of multiple burial in the Bungumyo is became a main on the type of multiple burial through expansion, and the earthenware coffin decreases and the togwangmyo increases in the burial facilities. In particular, the Sangun-ri area of Wanju seems to show a pattern of changing the scale of society to a more efficient method as the ironware manufacturing industry has developed since the 4th century. After the 5th century, Baekje had a direct influence, such as creating a Baekje-based stone grave in the lower part of the Geumgang River, but the reason why the Bungumyo group in Sangun-ri, Wanju continued to develop can be assumed to be that the industry was progressing in a friendly relationship with Baekje in relation to the ironware manufacturing industry. By the second half of the 5th century, burial facilities in the Bungu were transformed into Baekje's stone chamber, and the tradition of Bungumyo was maintained until the first half of the 6th century, after that converted into Baekje culture.

Receptum argentarii constitutes one of the principals yet insuffi ciently elucidated legal institutions in Roman banking law. Th rough this institution, a banker undertook the obligation to discharge a debt owed by the client to a third party. In practice, the receptum implicated three parties – the banker, the client, and the third party (creditor). However, the legally binding relationship was exclusively established between the banker and the creditor. Should the banker fail to perform the undertaken obligation, the creditor was entitled to sue via the actio recepticia, introduced by the praetor in the 2nd century BCE. Although fundamentally a form of suretyship, the receptum diff ers from traditional forms of personal security (sponsio, fi depromissio, fi deiussio) by virtue of the direct legal relationship arising between the banker and creditor, independent of the debtor’s consent or presence. While some scholars regard the receptum argentarii as a formal verbal contract, the predominant view holds that it was concluded by an informal declaration by the banker to the client’s creditor, undertaking payment of the client’s debt. Initially confined to argentarii, its application later extended to nummularii, underscoring the significance of professional bankers within the legal and economic framework of ancient Rome. As intermediaries between debtors and creditors, Roman bankers not only provided custodial and financial services but actively contributed to legal security and efficiency in payment transactions through institutions such as the receptum. Th eir capacity to assume clients’ obligations toward third parties, coupled with praetorian legal protection, established them as pivotal agents in the evolution of the Roman law of obligations. An analysis of pertinent excerpts from Justinian’s Codification reveals that in post-classical law, the receptum argentarii was deemed unacceptable due to its abstract character – it permitted the banker to effect payment to the creditor absent prior establishment of the client’s actual obligation. Accordingly, Emperor Justinian repealed the actio recepticia and transferred the function of the receptum to the institution of constitutum debiti, which was grounded on an existing debt. This latter institution involved an informal undertaking to pay an extant debt, whether one’s own (constitutum debiti proprii) or another’s (constitutum debiti alieni), within a defined time and place. The formal abolition of the receptum in the 6th century epitomized a profound conceptual shift in legal transactions – from formality and abstraction toward causality and informality. Consequently, receptum argentarii remains an exemplary institution whose analysis provides deeper insight not only into the development of banking activities in Rome but also into the transformation of the Roman law of obligations during late antiquity. In contemporary law, the demand guarantee is most similar to the Roman receptum argentarii

This review examines two recently published volumes on ancient political thought. The first, Introduzione al pensiero politico classico (Bologna, il Mulino, 2024) by Giovanni Giorgini, traces the development of political reflection from its earliest manifestations—identified by the author in the Homeric poems and Hesiod’s Works and Days (8th–7th century BCE)—to Polybius (2nd century BCE). The second volume, Epicureismo antico e moderno (Rome, Lithos, 2025), explores the trajectory of Epicureanism from its ancient origins (3rd century BCE) to the modern age. The aim of this analysis is to highlight the innovative aspects and the new directions of research opened by both works.

The Iberian Peninsula was considered an extremely important territory for the Roman Empire in every aspect; it was a significant strategic area in terms of both natural resources and defence. By the 2nd century BC, the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior were organised in a part of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were stationed primarily for military purposes. Subsequently, the economic potential of the area was exploited. During the Augustan period, the administrative system was transformed by several reforms. The new system took into account the experiences of the past two centuries, and when establishing new territorial units, an important aspect was how to transform from a military, economic, and/or social system into a new administrative one. This paper seeks to answer the question of how the establishment of the renewed administration was related to the previous political situation, and I will examine the impact of all this on the economic exploitation of the area. In the latter case, I pay special attention to the impact of Hispania’s two main economic sectors, mining and trade, on the monetary economy of the region and the empire. When analysing the empire’s revenues, it is inevitable to examine the types of taxes and their amounts, as well as the analysis of local and long-distance economic relations, such as the examination of trading associations and monetary institutions.

This paper explores the composition of the extended family, the gens, in the Etruscan minor town of Blera, and surrounding territory, the Biedano region (Province of Viterbo). The aim is to study the inscriptions of the area in order to survey the leading families. Two major events can be noted: firstly, two alterations in the composition of the leading families, one in the first half of the Subarchaic period (c. 480-400 BC), the other in the late Republican period (1st century BC); on both occasions new gentilicia emerge while older ones disappear. Secondly, the inscriptions indicate a shift of location, from the south part of the region in the Archaic period, to the north part in the Hellenistic and Republican periods. L’articolo esplora la composizione della famiglia estesa, la gens, nel centro minore etrusco di Blera e nel territorio circostante, la regione del Biedano (provincia di Viterbo). L’obiettivo è quello di studiare le iscrizioni dell’area al fine di tracciare le famiglie principali. Si possono notare due eventi principali: in primo luogo, due alterazioni nella composizione delle famiglie principali, una nella prima metà del periodo subarcaico (circa 480-400 a.C.), l’altra nel tardo periodo repubblicano (I secolo a.C.); in entrambe le occasioni nuovi gentilizi emersero mentre quelli più antichi scomparvero. In secondo luogo, le iscrizioni indicano uno spostamento di localizzazione, dal sud della regione in età arcaica, al nord in età ellenistica e repubblicana.

This paper discusses Alexander’s relations with the Athenians with regard to the issue of his deification in Athens. While the literary evidence is very controversial, a new piece of visual evidence will be introduced. A marble bust in the Athenian Agora is here argued to be a Roman copy of Alexander’s cult statue, erected in 324/3 BC. In addition, the famous marble head of Alexander from the Acropolis, usually thought to reflect a lifetime portrait, is here argued to belong to a posthumous portrait, also showing a divinized Alexander, dedicated by the Attalids on the Acropolis in the 2nd century BC and associated with their dynastic cult.

The article analyzes the ekphrasis of paintings as a subtype of ekphrasis. Having established the existence of the procedure in both Rome and India, and having looked at the historical-geographical framework for exchanges between these two ancient civilizations, it studies, on the Roman side, eight references to paintings in Plautus (3rd-2nd centuries BCE), and on the Sanskrit side, one in Bhāsa (3rd century CE), one in Śūdraka (4th century CE), three in Kālidāsa (5th century CE), two in Harṣa (7th century CE), two in Bhavabhūti (8th century CE) and one in Rājaśekhara (9th century CE). The purpose of the comparison is to support the hypothesis, advanced by Rodríguez-Adrados (2012), that cultural contact could have resulted in a possible influence from Roman theater into Sanskrit theater. Specifically, a borrowing from the ekphrasis of the painting in Terence’s (2nd century BCE) The Eunuch 583-591 into the ekphrasis of the painting in Bhāsa’s (3rd century CE) The Messenger’s Speech 6.15 - 12-6 is proposed. In conclusion, the plausibility of this supposed influence is argued.

This paper presents the author's lecture on the first Eurasian globalization at a conference organized by the Department of Classical Philology at the University of Costa Rica. The 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE witnessed the emergence or development of new cultural spheres, which later became classical, and their corresponding languages, scripts, and schools of thought, particularly in the Greco-Roman world, India, and China.

Alanya Archaeological Museum is located in Alanya, in the province of Antalya, on the site of the ancient city of Korakesion. Situated in eastern Pamphylia, the museum’s collection includes coins from both Cilicia and Pamphylia. As of 2021, the museum’s inventory included 39 royal Ptolemaic coins. All of these coins are made of bronze. Coins of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III are the most numerous. The majority of the coins originate from Alexandria. The chronological distribution of the coins reflects the region’s transition to Ptolemaic rule. Similarly, the absence of coins from the relevant period confirms that Ptolemaic rule in Asia Minor ended at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. Data from Side Museum and Antalya Archaeological Museum, the westernmost museum in Pamphylia, also show that no local mint produced royal bronze coins in the region. It seems that Cyprus met the demand in Pamphylia. In the coming years, the results obtained from the coins in the Alanya Museum will be expanded, as expected, and findings from excavations in the region will be published.

This article examines the archaeological context of the Oxus Auloi, ancient wind instruments unearthed at the Oxus Temple in Takht-i Sangin, Tajikistan. Based on excavation records, the instruments were likely produced in the 3rd or early 2nd century BCE and deposited around the mid-2nd century BCE. Their spatial distribution in Corridor 6 – a space used for storing damaged or retired votive offerings – provides clues about their ritual treatment and fragmentation. The article situates these instruments within broader traditions of votive practice and ritual sound in Hellenistic Bactria, arguing that although they exhibit Greek stylistic traits, they were likely produced locally, reflecting cross-cultural entanglements in the region.

Abstract This study presents a pilot systematic analysis of rotative grinding stones from the highland site of El Castellot de Bolvir (La Cerdanya, eastern Pyrenees), occupied continuously from the Late Bronze Age to the Roman Republican period. Focusing on the transitional phase between the Late Iron Age and early Roman influence (3rd–2nd centuries BCE), the research combines typological and microbotanical (phytolith) records to investigate domestic food production strategies and the role of grinding technologies. The assemblage reveals a standardized and specialized use of granite rotative grinding stones (namely catilli and metae ), indicative of cereal processing practices. Phytolith results indicate the nature of the processed matter, including hulled barley, free-threshing wheat, and broomcorn millet, consistent with macrobotanical records at the site suggesting broader regional patterns of intensified agriculture and technological adaptation. This work fills a critical gap in Pyrenean archaeobotanical and technological studies and contributes to a more nuanced understanding of household economies and food technologies during a critical period of socio-political transformations driven by Romanization in northeastern Iberia.

․Rectangular solid towers represent a unique type of Armenian monumental architecture, reflecting the symbolic and ritual systems of the Iron Age. The study aims to reveal their spatial distribution, architectural characteristics, and functional significance. Methods and Materials․The research is based on field surveys, archaeological analysis, and digital documentation methods, including drone aerial photography, GIS mapping, and satellite data interpretation. The main examined examples are located on the slopes of Aragats, Arteni, Ara, Gutanasar, and Hatis mountains. Analysis and Results․Solid towers are situated in elevated landscapes, often associated with fortresses and burial fields. Lacking defensive functions, they served as symbolic and ritual centers. The C14 data from the Khanjyan 1 monument (4th–2nd centuries BCE) indicate the continued use of this architectural type over several centuries. The author supervised the research, conducted field investigations, discovered and localized new monuments, and performed all digital and cartographic processing.

In this article I analyze the symbolic role of the hospital in its social context, from its creation in Rome in the 2nd century BCE to contemporary Montreal hospitals. I trace the change from its original role as a site to isolate the sick to limit the symbolic pollution of the allegedly perfect social body of the Roman state, a trope that became an important vector of unity as Rome expanded and incorporated greater numbers of foreigners and slaves. Today, however, western hospitals have become a semiotic engine where patients construct a new biography to counter the depersonalisation of contemporary medical practices. I propose that today patients use the hospital as raw material to construct a temporal framework that substitutes the rhythms of everyday life that illness and the institutional culture of the hospital have interrupted. These narratives adhere to the same basic structure: the entrance scenario is always admission to the hospital; the plot structure is built with the non-medical details of the daily hospital routine. Surrounded by a neoliberal ethos that insists on the autonomy of the self but silenced by the mechanisation of illness, contemporary patients transform hospitals into semiotic engines where patients use their immediate environment to re-engineer new voices of the self.

This work is a comprehensive study of archaeological finds from Bohemia, Moravia, southwest Slovakia, and Lower Austria with enamel decoration from the 2nd to 1st century BC. Numerous artefacts decorated with enamel, almost exclusively red, come from the La Tène cultural sphere. Enamel is found especially on belts, horse harnesses and riding equipment, chariots, and decorative rivets. Regional and superregional groups of these artefacts were identified in the studied territory. According to the results of chem¬ical analyses, the composition of the glass of the La Tène red enamels from Europe of the 2nd to 1st century BC corresponds to the same two basic groups of natron glass – Egyptian and Levantine – as identified in the glass of personal ornaments of this period, i.e. beads, pendants, and bracelets. To date, the only evidence of local enamel processing is pieces of red glass, semi-finished products, and waste in the workshops at the Mont Beuvray – Bibracte oppidum in France. The metal composition of local types of enamelled artefacts could suggest other workshops.

• Organic additives, mainly rice husk (87–88%), dominate Bhaja plaster. • Biodegradable materials enhance strength, flexibility, and longevity. • Natural resins, bast fibers, and beeswax improve water resistance. • Findings align with carbon-negative and sustainable construction. • Bhaja plasters provide insights for eco-friendly modern building. This study examines the composition of ancient earthen plasters from the Bhaja Caves using advanced analytical techniques, including microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and starch grain analysis. The findings reveal a predominance of organic additives, particularly rice husk, comprising 87% to 88% of the plaster matrix, along with paspalum grains, bast fibers, millet, mung bean starch, beeswax, and natural resins. These components function as sustainable binding agents, enhancing the durability and flexibility of the plaster. The high silica content in rice husk, coupled with the binding properties of starches and the inclusion of natural oils and resins, reflects a holistic, nature-based construction methodology practiced for centuries. This study is highly relevant to heritage conservation, sustainable construction, and eco-friendly material development. By demonstrating the effectiveness of biodegradable and renewable materials in ancient plaster formulations, the findings offer valuable insights for modern conservation efforts of historical structures and the development of carbon-negative building materials. The research has direct applications in the fields of archaeology, architectural conservation, and green building technologies, providing a blueprint for integrating agricultural by-products into contemporary construction. By reducing reliance on synthetic materials, this approach contributes to sustainability goals, resource efficiency, and circular economy principles.