For centuries, PIL has used unilateral and multilateral approaches. Each of them takes, as point of departure, a different conception of the aim and objectives of PIL, although, at the end, the results of unilateral and multilateral methods do not diverge essentially in the solution of many specific problems.Maybe we should considerer unilateralism and multilateralism as different tools, and for this reason, it would be necessary to focus in the practical use of each method instead relying on the essential differences of unilateral and multilateral PIL.Here we will discuss some of these issues, trying to understand the differences between unilateralism and multilateralism as two different phases in a two-steps PIL, but without leaving aside that these differences are also connected with changes of the political structures that have become lawmakers. As we are going to see, there is a connection between the decentralised political system during the Middle Ages and unilateralism; centralization of the political power in the 19th and 20th century and conflictualism; and the multilevel governance in Europe at the end of the 20th century and 21th century and the growing importance of unilateralism.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to first display Islamic origins of the Common law, and thereafter analyze whether the English legal system applies Shariah law when dealing with debt-based (obligation) Islamic financial contracts. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses a qualitative methodology and a single/embedded case study design. The single component refers to English law, while the embedded component refers to Beximco Pharmaceuticals LTD. and Ors. v Shamil Bank of Bahrain Ec (2004) and Dana Gas PJSC v Dana Gas Sukuk Ltd. and Ors (2017) as units of analysis. Findings Contrary to the paradigmatic notion that the English court excluded Sharīʿah law in the Beximco Pharmaceuticals LTD. and Ors. v Shamil Bank of Bahrain Ec (2004) and Dana Gas PJSC v Dana Gas Sukuk Ltd. and Ors (2017) cases, and exclusively applied English law, the findings in this research suggest that Sharīʿah law was indirectly applied. The findings suggest that Islamic origins in the Common law, in addition to the obligation of debt-repayment in the English legal system, results in legal parallelism due to debt-repayment simply being a key phenomenon existent within Sharīʿah law. Research limitations/implications The research is limited to analyzing two Islamic financial disputes in the English court and does not delve into theoretical arenas analyzing how English law may be amended to accommodate a growing Islamic financial industry. Separate research may be conducted to analyze how English law may practically accommodate Islamic financial disputes more efficiently. Originality/value While the cases under discussion have been discussed about in various literature, this research provides a non-paradigmatic finding that may contribute to literature and act as a cause for deliberation. Additionally, it links the analysis with the discussion pertaining to Islamic origins of the Common law, by shedding light on the dramatic changes brought forth by Henry II during the 12th century.

A boundary object is an item or idea or that solidifies relationships between stakeholders in a social system. A boundary object has local meaning within a single group and maintains relationships between actors. Using textual and secondary analysis, this paper argues that the formulation of the newspaper box score during the late 19th century created a boundary object that helped bring the sports media system into coherence. In its earliest days, the nascent sports reporting profession used data to define a professional identity and then enroll media organizations, sports organizations, and readers into what we understand as the sports media system. This understanding of the history of sports journalism has important implications for the study of the changing media system within sports and beyond.

In the late 19th century, Eliza Scidmore discovered the beauty of the Japanese flowering cherry tree. Her interesting story of vision and perseverance to bring this beauty to Washington D.C. is analogous to the opportunity for growth and broadening facing military leaders, specifically Army chaplains today. This article introduces and defines the concept of broadening in the Army, describes the importance of broadening, and casts a vision for the key stakeholders of the Army Chaplain Corps to approach the developmental broadening opportunities facing Army chaplains today. It emphasizes the need for a broadening mindset among chaplains, encouraging them to view every assignment as a chance for growth, irrespective of its classification as a broadening assignment. Key stakeholders, including chaplains, the Office of the Army Chief of Chaplains Personnel Division, and operational leaders, are urged to foster an environment where continuous learning and engagement are paramount.

Diseases of 'warm temperaments': a modern perspective on Dr Hother McCormack Hanschell's 'On the influence of race in venereal disease' and the legacies of colonialism and scientific racism in tropical medicine.

Abstract. In October 1929, measurements of the atmospheric potential gradient (PG) began to be routinely recorded at the Magnetic Observatory in Świder, Poland. This started a new chapter in the history of the Observatory, in 1937 renamed the Geophysical Observatory in Świder. Two Benndorf electrometers recorded continuously until September 1939. War World II disrupted these observations as well as shattered efforts to publish the results of nearly a decade. Nevertheless, these early actions initiated by the Observatory management shaped its future as it became a contemporary atmospheric electricity station in the second half of the 20th century.

Abstract. The western Black Sea shelf is particularly sensitive to river-induced eutrophication due to river discharge from the Danube River, and accordingly, eutrophication peaked in the 1980s and 1990s due to human-induced nutrient input. Nutrient input to the western Black Sea shelf and eutrophication decreases since the mid-1990s due to the collapse of eastern European economies after 1989 and ongoing mitigation measures to reduce nutrient emissions. The assessment of nutrient inputs to the Black Sea prior to the 1960s however is hindered by the scarcity of information on earlier Danube nutrient loads. Thus, to define pristine conditions to provide a reference for nutrient reduction targets remains challenging. In this study, we aim to trace modern and historical nitrogen sources to the western Black Sea Shelf during the last ∼ 7000 years with special focus on the past 200 years, using sedimentary records of TOC, TIC, nitrogen, and δ15N to quantify the share of anthropogenic nitrogen. Our results demonstrate that climate effects determine the relative contribution of riverine nitrogen and pelagic nitrogen fixation to fuel marine primary production on the NW shelf. This balance is not only controlled by the riverine nutrient load, but also by the freshwater volume itself, which controls the intensity of thermohaline stratification and thereby the timing and intensity of nutrient recycling from the deep basin back into the euphotic surface water. In the cold and dry Sub-Boreal climate pelagic N-fixation dominates over riverine N discharge, while in the warm and wet Atlantic climate riverine N discharge appears as dominant N source to sustain primary production on the NW shelf. Stable nitrogen isotopes further demonstrate the increased deposition of nitrogen from human activities across the shelf and the concomitant changes in deposition rates of organic matter, which can be tracked back to perturbations in the plankton due to the human-induced eutrophication. Finally, our stable isotope data indicate that human-induced eutrophication can be traced back to the 11th century CE and highlight that the Danube nutrient load was not pristine for at least the past 900 years.

Development of long-term gridded data of water use in Japan since the late 20th century

This article deals with the connection between contemporary oral narratives in Quechua and the Inca pilgrimage of the sun (Inti Raymi) described in colonial chronicles. It aims to explain the complex astronomical links between an oral tradition and a pilgrimage. The narratives, related to me in the village of Pomacanchi (Cuzco Dept.) during my ethnolinguistic fieldwork, form part of a cycle of myths about Qanchi Machu, the culture hero of the Qanchi. Both Inca pilgrimage accounts and contemporary narratives project onto earth – with astronomical precision – the year-long course of the sun at midday across the sky. Consequently, aspects of the Andean concept of time and space, both in Inca times and nowadays, are being revealed.I describe the movement of the sun in the language of the nowadays Quechua peasants when they observe the sun, or in the language of the chroniclers who wrote it down in the 16th century, when the sun walked through the sky from one place to another just like the Quechua people do it in our world. Chronicles from the colonial period and oral Quechua tradition are treated here as distinct yet equally valuable sources. Moreover, a link between the written chronicles and the orally transmitted myths is established through an eminently scientifi c medium, namely astronomy. Thus, something that would have been impossible in the case of a restriction to one type of source only – either chronicles or oral narratives – is achieved, namely to demonstrate the complexity of Andean culture, its worldview just as well a its continuity over the centuries (all transformations since the colonial era notwithstanding), thus making way for new insights and building understanding for the ritual activitiesback then as well as today.

Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, studies into prebiotic chemistry have made a decisive contribution to research into the origins of life. This is the theme of this article, conceived as an integrative bibliographic review, carried out by consulting descriptors in DeCS ( https://decs.bvsalud.org/ ) and MeSH ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/ ), which enabled the design of the search strategies used to retrieve articles in PubMed ( https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ) and SciELo ( https://scielo.org/ ). After the article selection process, 45 texts were chosen and used to prepare this manuscript. The information collected was organized into six sections – (i) Primordial chemistry of the Earth; (ii) First organic compounds; (iii) Prebiotic chemical structures; (iv) Original living beings; (v) Scientific perspectives; and (vi) (bio)ethical implications–in which the main results and respective discussions were gathered. It is important to highlight the long road that has been traveled towards a better understanding of the events that culminated in the origins of life. The link between science and ethics in this process is essential as a prerequisite for building responsible knowledge that considers the value of all forms of existence.

In today's criminal procedure law investigation is a very important stage of the criminal process. Both in theory and in practice investigation is one of the main phases of the procedure beside the other, the trial or judicial phase. However in our previous legal system a different approach was typical: at the beginning of the 20th century the preliminary or preparatory nature of the investigation was emphasised, while from the 1950s the role of investigation became increasingly stronger. From this period it became clear that investigating authorities can conduct evidentiary proceedings (not merely data collection). This study attempts to follow the latter development, i.e. it traces the theoretical and legislative changes that have led to the current legal status of the investigation.

The head mirror was invented by Friedrich Hoffmann in 1841 and popularized by Anton von Troeltsch in 1855, whose design is still used today. Though it was primarily used by otolaryngologists, it is used ubiquitously as a symbol to represent doctors in the popular press and media. This investigation examines how the role of the head mirror throughout history has influenced medical symbolism in popular culture. Literature review was conducted including primary references exploring the history and development of the head mirror, followed by a secondary search of references cited by retrieved articles. The National Library of Medicine was used to search for historical texts. A Boolean search using "head mirror" AND "manual" was conducted. Primary sources such as cartoons and newspapers with depictions of the head mirror were also utilized. Doctors wearing head mirrors appear in a wide range of comic strips, television shows, paper and digital advertisements, as well as children's media and video games from the early 20th century up through the current day. While history often leads us to understand how symbols arise, we can only postulate the cultural reasons why certain symbols persist. Perhaps it is the striking appearance, the visual humor, or the nostalgic aspect of the head mirror in combination with its historical significance that has been permanently etched into the image of the physician. While the everyday use of the head mirror has declined, its use in mainstream media is as pervasive as ever.

ABSTRACT The central and eastern regions of medieval Ethiopia were characterized by intensive transcultural connections, as evidenced by the presence of imported glass bead artifacts. An assemblage of over 18,800 beads and their fragments, currently in the Ethiopian National Museum in Addis Ababa, has been studied during the SolZag Project. This paper presents the results of an analysis of 133 glass beads from eight sites of the local and Islamic cultures dated between the eighth and 16th centuries ce . A study of the glass samples using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS) revealed that they fell into a number of compositional types. Beads made from plant ash‐soda‐lime glass associated with Middle Eastern (northern Syria, Iran, and Iraq) production dated to the 9th–10th centuries ce and beads with East Mediterranean (Egypt and Levant) origin dated after the mid‐10th century dominated the assemblage. Many beads were made of Indian mineral‐soda‐high‐alumina glass as well as Central Asian plant ash‐soda high‐alumina glass. European beads are represented by lead glass and soda‐lime glass. The outcomes of this investigation offer novel evidence pertaining to the provenance and chronology of glass beads extant in medieval and postmedieval Northeast Africa. They further contribute hitherto unavailable data to the ongoing research concerning the land and sea trade contacts of Ethiopia from that period.

Nahj al-Balāghah is widely recognized as a foundational and authoritative scripture in Shia Islam. One notable aspect of Nahj al-Balāghah is the deliberate selection and structured arrangement of Ḥadiths. According to the book’s introduction, al-Raḍī explains that he chose the Ḥadiths based on literary considerations. An analysis comparing the selected Ḥadiths with their full versions suggests their inclusion was determined not only by eloquence and rhetorical value but also by conceptual significance. Through textual and descriptive analytical methods, this study examines the author’s motives, especially his political and religious aims, in incorporating materials related to ʿĀisha. A comparison of the relevant ḥadīths in Nahj al-Balāghah and other historical sources indicates that Sayyid Raḍī omitted—or at least refrained from including—certain statements attributed to ʿAlī regarding the Prophet Muḥammad’s youngest wife. The omitted parts concern ʿĀisha’s inconsiderate behavior, grudges, sins, following Satan, and ignoring the Prophet’s prediction. Considering sectarian conflicts between Shiites and Sunnis in the 3rd and 4th centuries AH, some arising from criticisms of ʿĀisha’s conduct and sometimes escalating into violence, al-Raḍī, the supreme judge appointed by the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate, was compelled to omit and censor ʿAli’s harsh remarks about ʿĀisha to prevent further sectarian tensions.

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is a major pantropical fruit crop, valued for its nutritional composition, wider adaptability, and economic significance. Since its introduction in India during the 17th century, guava cultivars have exhibited a narrow genetic base, with most existing genotypes arising from open-pollinated selections or crosses involving a limited number of genotypes. Furthermore, much of the available germplasm has been named based on fruit characteristics or place/regions of origin, leading to confusion in classification and hindering the precise identification and utilization of genetic resources in guava breeding programs. To address this, 49 morpho-biochemical parameters were assessed in 51 diverse Psidium genotypes, including cultivars, varieties, hybrids, related wild species, and exotic/USDA introductions. Substantial variability was observed among globally collected guava germplasm for fruit traits, with fruit weight ranging from 11.67g (Psidium molle) to 379g (S. N90-53), seed number from 8 (S. N11-3) to 512 (S. N15-3), leaf length from 5.57 to 17.17cm, leaf width from 2.07 to 7.90cm, and petiole length from 0.17 to 0.77cm. Germplasm also differed in qualitative descriptors, including branch orientation, bark colour, leaf morphology, tip structure, and fruit surface traits, with wild species forming distinct morphological groups. Additionally, biochemical traits varied widely, including the contents of total soluble solid (6.8-13.8 °Brix), acidity (0.25-1.60%), total sugars (3.62-9.21g/100g FW), ascorbic acid (88.36-302.46mg/100g FW), ferric reducing antioxidants power (7.74-20.69 µM TE/g FW), free radical scavenging activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay)(85.72-98.47%), lycopene (0.05-8.91mg/100g FW), and total carotenoids (0.05-2.76mg/100g FW). Besides, principal component analysis indicated PC1 (22.1%) related to fruit size and PC2 (15.2%) to biochemical traits. Furthermore, cluster analysis grouped 51 guava genotypes into three clusters, distinguishing wild from cultivated types. The study confirms the presence of wide morpho-biochemical variability in Psidium germplasm, offering valuable genetic resources for genetic improvement programs, aimed at enhanced fruit quality with rich antioxidants, bio-fortification, and the tailoring of novel guava genotypes with reduced seed content, enhanced seed mellowness, and tenet branching, fitting in high-density planting and improved yield efficiency.

Multiple academic sites have reported that social isolation can pose a public health hazard, specifically premature cardiovascular disease and cerebrovascular disease. This article reports on cardiovascular complications discovered by clinicians and public health researchers. In addition, there are reports that social isolation is associated with pulmonary disease, cancer, autoimmune disease, and even adverse outcomes during pregnancy. Social isolation has been a known factor for serious adverse outcomes in psychiatric circles since the time of Emil Kraepelin, Paul Eugen Bleuler, and Emile Durkheim before the 20th century. In the past, there have also been sporadic case reports from biologically oriented psychiatrists reporting severe medical conditions in these patients, mostly regarded as due to poor access to medical assessments of patients with social isolation. While still a valid pathway for the explanation of some findings, recently, there has been a great deal of interest in the discovery of pathophysiological mechanisms as causative of deadly outcomes in victims of social isolation. This is based on the robust association between social isolation and the development of premature cardiovascular disease. Using Scopus, PubMed, and the Bernard Becker Medical Library at Washington University, the authors reviewed articles from Europe, England, North America, and East Asia published within the past 2 years. Descriptions of pathophysiological mechanisms published in the past 20 years are included in this paper.

For too long, schools and other organizations have relied on what have come to be known as technical, rational, or functional approaches to leadership, stemming in the global north, from scientific management in the early 20th century. Schools have been hierarchically organized in the belief that only the “managers” were smart enough to know what is needed, with others (including teachers and students) needing to obey and comply with established regulations, curricular standards, and assessment tools. If we want more equitable, inclusive, and just outcomes, it is time for school leaders to reject the dominant scientific leadership paradigm and to employ a new paradigm, with new axiology, ontology, epistemology, and methodology focused on values, community, and cultures. Transformative leadership theory is described as an exercise of power and authority that begins with questions of justice and democracy. It critiques inequitable practices and offers the promise not only of greater individual achievement but of a better life lived in common with others. This article reviews some of the origins of transformative leadership theory, identifies some of the most common approaches and principles, and argues that by fundamentally reorienting leadership towards justice, democracy, and equity, transformative leadership theory provides the essential ethical and practical framework for education in a fractured world.

The seminal discovery in the theory of q-series and combinatorics analysis has been theBailey lemma which has since made a revolutionary impact on the study of partition identities,modular forms and special functions since it was presented by W.N. Bailey in the middle ofthe 20th century. This review article has tried to give the historical details of the Bailey lemmaand recounts the origin, evolution and subsequent generalizations of the lemma in noting themassive contribution to a wide range of mathematics including number theory, representationtheory, and the physics of mathematics. This paper starts with an introduction to the classicalversion of the Bailey lemma, including how it was used in the first few years of its discovery toprovide systematic proofs of Rogers-Ramanujan-type identities and other forms of partitions. Itlater explores the methodological development of the lemma which was laid down by importantauthors like George Andrews and Basil Gordon, who introduced the notion of Bailey chainsas well as Bailey pairs as expansions of the work of Bailey. The developments have allowed usto discover new infinite families of identities and also achieve a better understanding of theunderlying combinatorial structures. Recent progress, including elliptic and multidimensionalextensions of the Bailey lemma and their application to vertex operator algebras and conformalfield theory are also examined in the paper. In a bid to rekindle the perpetual relevance andapplicability of the Bailey lemma as a unifying tool in mathematical studies, this paper aimsat uniting historical and modern perspectives of the same. The envisaged outcomes are theimproved insight into the flexibility of the lemma, the interconnections with other branchesof mathematics, and many more opportunities to be pursued in the further studies, especiallyfollowing the explosion of interdisciplinary applications of the lemma.

A brief history of electrical brain stimulation in humans.

A three-coral Ba/Ca network provides a regional river discharge reconstruction in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama throughout the 20th century