Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common malignant skin tumours in dogs, significantly impacting canine health.Despite its prevalence, the study of biomarkers in canine SCC is still limited compared to human oncology. Biomarkers can providevaluable insights into the biological behaviour of tumours, aiding in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment strategies. This reviewaims to consolidate the current knowledge on biomarkers in canine cutaneous SCC, highlighting parallels with human studiesto enhance the understanding and potential clinical applications in veterinary oncology. Several key biomarkers have been identified in canine SCC, including cyclooxygenases (COX-2), intermediate filaments (vimentin), angiogenic factors (VEGF), and apoptosis-related proteins (survivin). Other biomarkers such as periostin, heat shock proteins, SOX9, E-cadherin, cytokeratins, galectins, and kallikreins have also been explored, providing insights into the pathophysiology and potential therapeutic targets for canine SCC. The expression patterns of these biomarkers often parallel those observed in human SCC, underscoring their relevance in both veterinary and comparative oncology. Identifying and characterising biomarkers in canine cutaneous SCC is crucial for advancing veterinary oncology. Continued research in this area could lead to improved diagnostic tools and targeted therapies, ultimately enhancing the management of SCC in dogs.

Yeast infections, particularly those caused by species of the genera Malassezia and Candida, are important contributors to otitis and dermatitis in dogs. This study investigates the prevalence and antifungal resistance of various yeast-like fungi isolated from canine dermal lesions in Portugal. Between 2018 and 2023, samples from dogs with clinically suspected yeast infections were collected and analysed using the Vitek 2 Compact® (bioMérieux, Marcy-l'Étoile, France) and FUNGITEST™ 60780 kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, USA). A total of 24 fungal isolates were identified, including Malassezia pachydermatis and Candida albicans. Susceptibility testing revealed high sensitivity to antifungal agents such as fluconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and miconazole across most species, with notable resistance observed in Rhodotorula mucilaginosa to multiple antifungals. Intermediate resistance levels were detected in Malassezia spp. to flucytosine and several other antifungals. These findings underscore the need for continuous monitoring and prudent antifungal use to prevent resistance development. The study also highlights the importance of revisiting treatment protocols for Malassezia infections in dogs, given the observed resistance patterns. Further research is recommended to explore the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying antifungal resistance and develop new therapeutic agents.

Two cases of local skin reactions to intramuscular application of enrofloxacin in a reticulatedpython (Malayopython reticulatus) (6 years, 5.5 kg) and a Burmese python (Python bivitatus) (3 years, 25 kg) are presented. The reticulated python was treated for a swelling of the upper jaw, while the Burmese python had respiratory symptoms. The first python was treated with meloxicam for 7 days, but since the swelling did not go down, the local veterinarian consulted a reptile expert. Instead of the recommended marbofloxacin, the animal received an intramuscular injection of enrofloxacin, and swelling and a sterile abscess appeared at the injection site, with local pinkish skin discolouration. After marbofloxacin therapy was continued, the swelling disappeared. The white spotpatch at the site of the single application of enrofloxacin is still present after3 months. The Burmese python received enrofloxacin and bromhexine hydrochloride intramuscularly for 14 days. Sterile abscesses and skin discolouration occurred at 3-4 sites of enrofloxacin application. Initially, the scales around the site of enrofloxacin application became pale and matte, later appearing as though the scales had melted or fused. Even 5 years later, a slight spherical bulge with a hard-elastic consistency can be felt. The treatment was carried out in another local clinic.Intramuscular application of enrofloxacin in pythons can lead to the formation of a sterile abscess at the injection site and long-term discolouration of the skin above that site, although some prescriptions warn of possible skin discoloration, but only after subcutaneous administration of enrofloxacin.

The past decade has witnessed active research in the field of feline veterinary oncology, focused on a deeper understanding of risk factors, key pathogenic mechanisms, prognostic markers, refinement of surgical techniques, exploration of new therapeutic targets, and neoplasia prevention. Despite certain advancements, the issue of verifying and predicting the biological behaviour of individual tumours remains unresolved. Among them is lymphoma, which often presents a chronic course (without athognomonic signs) and demonstrates significant variability in tissue involvement, explaining the considerable fluctuations in its recordedfrequency, ranging from 3.6 to 22%. The range of anatomical forms also varies significantly, with alimentary (up to 40%) and multicentric (up to 30%) lymphomas most commonly diagnosed. The probability of verifying numerous histopathological types (T-cell lymphoma, B-cell lymphoma) and their subtypes correlates with the anatomical form of lymphoma. A concerning trend is the dynamic increase in the registration of new and rare forms of lymphoma (primary lymphoma of the adrenal glands, pericardium, ocular globe, etc.), indicating the variability of pathogenetic mechanisms, likely due to enhanced genomic instability. In addition to well-established risk factors for lymphoma in cats, the adverse anthropogenic impact has become relevant. The initiation of lymphoma in cats due to tobacco smoke has been proven. The significance of age, breed, and gender predisposition as risk factors for lymphoma has been debated and largely depends on the region. The absence of vaccination against viraldiseases in cats increases the risk of lymphoma. The most significant risk factors for the development of lymphoma in cats are leukosis and immunodeficiency agents, although their etiological role has significantly decreased in recent years. Current research demonstrates the active involvement of chromosomal aberrations and chronic inflammation in lymphoma development. Kidney transplantation and immunosuppressive therapy increase the likelihood of lymphoma development in cats almost sevenfold.A risk factor requiring further study is genetic heredity, currently identified in Siamese, British, and Oriental shorthair cats.

Porcine lymphotropic herpesviruses 1, 2 and 3 (PLHV-1, PLHV-2 and PLHV-3) are DNA viruses belonging to the genus Macavirus and the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae within the family Herpesviridae. PLHV was detected in domestic pigs in Germany in 1999, with subsequent outbreaks in Spain, Brazil, Italy and Ireland, which was the trigger for our preliminary study to investigate its occurrence in Croatian pig herds. According to previous studies, natural infections with PLHV in domestic pigs do not cause clinical signs of disease. However, PLHV-1 has been found to cause lymphoproliferative disorders in domestic pigs after bone marrow transplantation that are similar to those described in humans infected with human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), which originates from individuals after organ transplantation. HHV-4 is the causative agent of mononucleosis and is the first virus described to have oncogenic potential. HHV-8 causes Kaposi’s sarcoma and contributes to the development of lymphoproliferative disorders in humans, such asprimary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman’s disease. In this study, blood and spleen samples from domestic pigs were analysed using real-time polymerase chain reaction, which has been shown to be an excellent method for the detection of PLH viruses as it is rapid, highly specific and sensitive. The presence of all three PLHV strains in domestic pigs in Croatia was confirmed for the first time with a prevalence of 55.8% regardless of breeding conditions. The most dominant strain was PLHV-1 and the most frequent co-infection was PLHV-1 with PLHV-3. The virus was detected in 10 Croatian counties, with the highest prevalence found in Vukovar-Srijem County. Although herpesviruses are generally species-specific, the close genetic relationship of PLHV with HHV-4 and HHV-8 may indicate a possible zoonotic potential, particularly in immunocompromised human recipients following xenotransplantation. Further investigation of PLHV will contribute to a better understanding of its importance in maintaining the health of pigs and will include genotyping to identify origin of the viruses and potential public health risks.

Folate is essential for the proper development of the brain. The gene CCND1 is responsible for the synthesis of the cyclin D1protein, which facilitates the differentiation and proliferation of neurons. Nerve growth factor (NGF) is critical for the survival and maturation of neurons. MicroRNAs are involved in regulating various phases of neurogenesis, including the proliferation of neural stem cells and differentiation of neurons. Given the important role of folic acid (FA) inthe regulation of gene expression, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of in ovo injection of FA on expression levels of gga-mir-let-7k-5p, CCND1, and NGF in the cerebral cortex of chicken embryos. This study involved a total of 120 hatching eggs.Of these, 40 eggs were administered FA injections into the amniotic fluid at a dosage of 150µg per egg, another 40 eggs received Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) injections (Sham)on embryonic day 11, while the remaining 40 eggs served as controls without any injections. Cortical tissues were subsequently collected on embryonic day 19, and Real-timePCR was employed to analyse the expression of mir-let-7k-5p, CCND1, and NGF. The results revealed that the expression levels of gga-mir-let-7k-5p in the FA-treated, Sham, and control groups were 0.46±0.09, 0.73±0.18,and 0.76±0.17-fold change, respectively. Additionally, the expression levels of CCND1were recorded at 1.77±0.38, 1.18±0.25, and1.11±0.28-fold change, respectively, whileNGF levels exhibited similar patterns at1.92±0.50, 1.12±0.25, and 1.04±0.21-fold change, respectively (P<0.05). Statistical analysis indicated a significant increase in the expression of CCND1 and NGF, along side a reduction in gga-mir-let-7k-5p expression in cortices treated with FA compared to the control. This suggests that the in ovo administration of FA enhances the expression of CCND1 and NGF, while decreasing gga-mir-let-7k-5p expression in the developing cerebral cortex of chicks. Enhancing our understanding of how folate impacts the activation of gene sand microRNAs related to the development of the cerebral cortex, and its potential connection to neural tube defects, will improve our knowledge of brain development, and could result in new treatment approaches to further reduce the occurrence of these abnormalities.

The resumption of postpartum ovarian ac-tivity (RPOA) is influenced by the cow’s meta-bolic profile, though the relationship betweenRPOA and the metabolic profile of dairy cowsat high altitude in the Andean Region of Ecua-dor is still unclear. The goal of this study was todetermine the relationship between RPOA andthe metabolic profile of Holstein cows at highaltitude in the Andean Region of Ecuador. Thir-ty cows were selected and their RPOA and met-abolic profile at 30 days postpartum were evalu-ated. According to the RPOA, the metabolic in-dicators were compared using the t-Student testfor independent samples. A simple linear cor-relation was run between the main indicatorsof the RPOA and the metabolic parameters. Anobservational analytical study was performedto establish the association between RPOA andmetabolic profile. Holstein caws showing anearly RPOA had lower β-Hydroxybutyrate andblood urea nitrogen (P < 0.05), and higher phos-phate, copper, and zinc concentrations (P < 0.05)concentrations in blood serum as compared toHolstein cows with late RPOA. Increased bloodβ-hydroxybutyrate and low phosphate, copperand zinc were risk factors (P < 0.05) for late post-partum RPOA. In addition, the follow param-eters were correlated (P < 0.05): appearance ofthe dominant follicle and zinc levels, follicle di-ameter and copper, occurrence of ovulation andblood β-hydroxybutyrate level, the occurrenceof ovulation and phosphate , luteal activity andcholesterol, corpus luteum volume and cop-per, blood serum progesterone and cholester-ol, and blood serum progesterone and copperlevels. There was a strong correlation (P < 0.01)between the occurrence of ovulation and cop-per levels, luteal activity and blood β-hydrox-ybutyrate levels, and copper and zinc levels.These findings show that RPOA was related tothe metabolic profile at 30 days postpartum, es-pecially with protein excesses and energy, andphosphate, copper and zinc deficiencies.

This study investigated the relationship between vaginal cytological examination and progesterone levels (P4) during a 12.5-month period of cycle monitoring in 16 domestic bitches subjected to oestrus induction treatments. By analysing the correlations between P4 rates and cellular parameters (specifically eosinophilia and basophilia percentage), the study aimed to establish a reliable cellular parameter that can serve as an indicator of low progesterone thresholds. Preliminary monitoring was conducted through bi-weekly visits. At each visit, all animals systematically underwent a vaginal smear stained with the Harris-Schorr trichrome method. For P4 assess-ment, plasma samples were analysed using a radioimmunoassay method. Cycle control during and after oestrus induction was accompanied by clinical, cytological and hormonal monitoring until the gestational state was confirmed. Chi-square test was applied to study the correlation in a population consisting of 282 smear slides corresponding to the corre- sponding P4 values. Data showed that at the beginning of proestrus, P4 levels were highly significantly correlated with the percentages of basophilic and eosinophilic cells. Among the cytological criteria evaluated for both cellular percentages, having more than 40% basophilic cells on the vaginal smear proved to be the most reliable with a zero margin of error. Its application indicated that when the percentage of basophilic cells is strictly greater than 40%, P4 values are below 2 ng/mL, and once the percentage of basophilia falls below 40%, the P4 assays become valuable. Thus, in the context of cycle monitoring, this cellular indicator could be particularly useful in avoiding costly and unnecessary progesterone measurements and reducing their frequency at the beginning of proestrus.

The study investigated the biochemical parameters of blood in comparison to histological findings in dogs with pancreatitis. Tissue samples were collected from the left and right lobes and the body of the pancreas during autopsy, followed by histological examination to assess the degree of inflammation, fibrosis, and necrotic changes. The severity of microstructural damage was classified into three grades based on the progression of fibrotic changes: mild, moderate and severe (characterised by dense pancreatic fibrosis). Histological changes in the pancreas in cases of chronic pancreatitis were compared to those in healthy dog pancreatic tissue obtained post-mortem from animals that died in traffic accidents. For each animal, the histological results were compared with the biochemical parameters of blood serum, measured prior to death during the diagnostic and treatment stages. In cases of mild microstructural changes, connective tissue proliferation occurred alongside minor atrophy of the exocrine component, with the structure of Langerhans-Sobolev islets preserved. Moder- ate damage involved more pronounced separation of exocrine parenchyma by fibrous tissue. Severe damage was characterised by acinar cell involvement, including vacuolar degeneration and atrophy. Loose fibrosis was typical for mild and moderate damage, while dense fibrosis was indicative of severe microstructural changes. Inflammation in the pancreas was not diffuse but was instead localised. The study established that the development of fibrosis plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis. Blood biochemical parameters were correlated with the severity of pathological microstructural changes. Specifically, the activity of alkaline phosphatase increased by 1.3 times. In severe cases, alanine aminotransferase activity showed a significant increase compared to moderate and mild forms. Elevated levels of connective tissue metabolites in blood serum were identified as informative diagnostic markers for chronic pancreatitis of varying degrees of microstructural damage. These markers provide valuable insight into the diagnosis and progression of the disease.

The ophthalmology examination is crucial for the treatment of certain systemic diseases. The eye is an anatomical extension of the brain, and many similarities can be found between them. Multidisciplinary research of the brain or the eye will cross-fertilise each other, especially in the context of neurodegenerative diseases. As an extension of the telencephalon, the optic nerve is surrounded by the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, just like the brain. Numerous studies and hypotheses have focused on the movement of cerebrospinal fluid in this region, particularly the influence of pressure on this area and the translaminar pressure gradient that develops as a result of this pressure. In the 1970s, Volkov proposed the theory that glaucoma is a two-pressure disease, which was supported by studies on astronauts, who often exhibit visual disturbances with swelling of the eye disc. Understanding the balance between intraocular pressure, cerebrospinal fluid pressure, and systemic blood pressure is key to better management of diseases such as glaucoma and intracranial hypertension. The aim of this article was to re-evaluate the current state of knowledge in order to improve the treatment of pathological conditions resulting from disturbances in aqueous humour and cerebrospinal fluid flow.