The systematic acquisition of field data is a major bottleneck for identifying scalable solutions that effectively reduce emissions while maintaining productivity in agricultural systems such as rice. This 2 nd volume of a multilayered presentation of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission measurements in rice fields links up with a review of scientific findings achieved with well-established measurement approaches. Special emphasis is given to advanced systems with laser-based trace gas analyzers (TGA) integrated into an upgraded closed chamber system. A synchronized field experiment was conducted under Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) and Continuous Flooding (CF), comparing a) manual sampling with gas chromatography representing a time-tested reference method, b) a TGA in a stand-alone (portable) configuration, and c) a TGA assembled with a semi-automated multi-valve system. Following a preparatory test resulting in an optimum sampling interval of 4 min, the reliability of the TGA measurements was assessed by calculating R² from linear regression of gas concentration versus sampling time. Based on a paired t-test, the three approaches did not present any significant difference except for rare outliers with p ≤ 0.01 reaching a maximum difference of 12.62 mg m - ² d - ¹. In total, these disparities were small compared to overall emission levels and occurred randomly across treatments, indicating that there was no systematic bias between approaches. In the second part of this volume, we broadened the perspective to a comparative assessment of methods supplemented by projecting future developments in GHG measurements in rice. Both portable and multi-valve TGA systems provide greater efficiency and real-time data acquisition while their mutual comparison is a function of research objectives and project settings. Regarding technical features of future measurement systems in rice, we highlighted the multi-valve TGA system as a feasible core component of a high-throughput screening platform intended to identify low-emission rice varieties for immediate dissemination across scales and integration into breeding programs. Finally, we assessed the possible synergies of these high-frequency TGA data sets with other emerging technologies, namely Remote Sensing and Machine Learning, under a diversified regulatory framework for GHG accounting that will likely dissolve the distinction of Tier 2 and 3 approaches for rice production.

Maize-based agroecosystems dominate food production across much of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and are central to regional food security. At the same time, agricultural soils are important sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly nitrous oxide (N 2 O), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ), raising concerns about the climate impacts of maize intensification. Although a broad body of agronomic research in SSA has examined soil carbon dynamics, nitrogen cycling and productivity trade-offs, evidence based on field-measured GHG fluxes from maize systems remains limited. This review synthesises experimental, field-based studies that quantify CO 2 , N 2 O and CH 4 emissions from maize agroecosystems in SSA to characterise emission levels, identify key emission drivers and assess the mitigation potential of various management strategies. A PRISMA-guided systematic mapping and narrative synthesis was conducted using Web of Science and Scopus databases. Twenty-one field-based studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed using bibliometric and thematic approaches. Across the reviewed studies, GHG emissions from maize systems in SSA were generally lower than those reported from high-input systems elsewhere, attributed to low nitrogen inputs and prevailing environmental conditions. Nitrogen management and soil moisture consistently emerged as dominant controls of N 2 O emissions, which typically contributed most to overall global warming potential. Carbon dioxide fluxes were strongly influenced by tillage practices and residue management, while soils commonly acted as net sinks for CH 4 , with episodic emissions during prolonged wet conditions. Evidence on conservation agriculture components points to context-dependent mitigation potential, with trade-offs among CO 2 , N 2 O and CH 4 varying by soil type, climate and management intensity. The review highlights the need for long-term, multi-site field experiments, particularly in underrepresented regions, to support the development of context-specific, climate-smart maize production strategies in SSA.

Rice fields are a critical source of CH 4 and N 2 O, necessitating accurate, field-level measurements to inform effective mitigation programs. This review (Volume 1) offers a novel perspective on this topic by focusing on the measurement systems themselves, driven by one core question: To what extent have the technical capabilities and limitations of field measurement systems shaped the current scientific understanding and knowledge gaps on rice greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions? We provide a comprehensive assessment of three major field approaches: Manually Sampled Chambers (MSC), Fully Automated Chambers (FAC), and Eddy Covariance (EC). Reversing the narrative of typical literature reviews that focus primarily on scientific findings, this paper starts with the technical evolution of each method, followed by a comparative assessment based on frameworks for method selection and scientific key contributions. The current scientific consensus and global estimates are overwhelmingly derived from the highly versatile MSC approach, which has generated a vast database across different rice-growing regions and management treatments, enabling statistically robust meta-analyses. Despite limitations—such as altering the microclimate in the headspace, possibly missing diurnal or seasonal peaks, and limited spatial scalability—the MSC remains a cornerstone of rice GHG research and will continue to play a central role. The FAC system was developed as an alternative, overcoming limitations in sampling frequency and providing robust data on diurnal and seasonal emission patterns, which proved especially valuable in comparative studies on crop management impacts. Finally, we discuss the use of EC, which provides high-resolution, integrative datasets that allow for a greatly improved process-based understanding of GHG fluxes. The established FluxNet collaboration of EC researchers could serve as a blueprint to coordinate chamber-based studies, thereby building the comprehensive dataset necessary to support data-driven modeling and Machine Learning (ML) development. This retrospective assessment in Volume 1 establishes a critical framework for evaluating and selecting rice GHG measurement methods. Volume 2 of this paper will supplement this work by addressing emerging technical innovations and prospects against the backdrop of diversified research objectives.

Introdution Climatic variability during the growth of off-season maize, the primary maize cycle in Brazil, creates stresses that limit yields and demand sustainable management strategies that reduce the reliance on excessive nitrogen (N) inputs. Methods This study evaluated foliar inoculation with A. brasilense and foliar phosphorus (P) application as strategies to improve off-season maize nutrition and yield under reduced N fertilization at six sites in Brazil. Results and Discussion The combined application of A. brasilense and foliar P increased leaf N and P concentrations, stalk diameter, the number of grains per ear, 100-grain weight, and grain yield (GY). Across sites, GY was highest under the combined application at the full N application rate, but combined application under a 25% lower N application rate produced GYs similar to those under the full N rate without inoculation or foliar P. Reducing the N rate by 25% led to a proportional decrease in N 2 O emissions without compromising GYs when combined with inoculation and P supplementation. Thus, managing off-season maize with foliar Azospirillum brasilense inoculation combined with foliar P application represents a sustainable alternative to optimize nutrient use efficiency and maintain productivity with reduced N input. In addition to agronomic benefits, this practice contributes to mitigating N 2 O emissions, making it a sustainable alternative for large-scale off-season maize production in Brazil.

The exploitation of natural resources used in food production systems, including productive soils, has occurred due to intensive and degenerative agricultural practices aiming at food security. These degenerative practices have pronounced effects on arid and semi-arid ecosystems, increasing rates of soil degradation in productive agricultural regions throughout the world. The idea of regenerative agriculture (RA) started in the 1980s, defined as a system that moves beyond sustainability in an attempt to actively improve resources through production practices. These practices include approaches like reduced tillage intensity, cover crops, crop rotation, and livestock integration, which are globally recognized as soil health practices (SHPs). Information regarding the efficacy and barriers to the adoption of SHPs in dryland agricultural systems is sparse. In this article, literature is compiled and reviewed to assess the feasibility of prominent SHPs in dryland systems, with special focus on the arid and semi-arid systems. Extensive research has shown that SHPs potentially improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties; however, reports of potential obstacles like yield loss, lack of short- and medium-term economic gains, and inaccessibility of proper equipment are preventing a smooth transition to regenerative systems. The success of RA practices varies depending on the dominant cash crop type, geographical region, whether the practices are used in tandem with one another, and socioeconomic factors. The extreme weather and water scarcity of dryland systems make it challenging to integrate RA practices effectively. Furthermore, the adoption of RA practices in large-scale commercial agriculture often hinges on economic variables like the cost of new machinery and the labor costs to implement the new practices. Here, the outcomes of SHPs are reviewed to clarify existing knowledge to enhance RA adoption for providing food security in a cost-effective, environmentally safe, and sustainable way while stabilizing the farm economy through increasing the profits of farms and diversifying farm incomes.

Cropping system diversification is considered a rational management practice for improving resource-use efficiency, enhancing productivity, and optimizing farm returns in the face of climate change. However, few studies have concurrently explored the productivity, profitability, and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of cropping systems diversified with perennial forage seed crops. This study, conducted on dark gray Luvisolic soil in the Peace River region of northwestern Canada from 2013 to 2024, sought to address this gap. A field experiment, arranged in a split-plot design, comprised eight cropping sequences as main plots and three nitrogen (N) levels (0, 45, and 90 kg N ha -1 ) as sub-plots. The cropping sequences included two perennial legumes (red clover and alsike clover), three perennial grasses (creeping red fescue, meadow bromegrass, and timothy), and four annual field crops (wheat, canola, pea, and barley). Productivity was evaluated based on seed yield and expressed as canola equivalent yield (CEY), while gross revenue and gross margin were used as profitability metrics. Based on CEY and aboveground biomass yield, NUE was also assessed for uniform comparison among cropping sequences. Intermittent inclusion of red clover (a perennial legume) and meadow bromegrass (a perennial vernalizing grass) in the cropping sequence increased CEY, gross revenue, gross margin, and agronomic NUE by 95-108%, 118-174%, 191-255%, and 21–77%, respectively, compared with alternating annual wheat-canola sequences across three N fertility levels. The higher seed price of red clover and greater seed yield and price of meadow bromegrass during their production phases provided opportunities to capitalize on local market demands. The N fertilization at 45 kg N ha -1 improved the yield and profitability across all cropping sequences, whereas the 90 kg N ha -1 rate did not result in significant economic benefits in comparison. Our results provide evidence that forage seed crop-based cropping systems have the potential to reduce reliance on external N inputs and enhance the economic efficiency of production systems.

Lablab ( Lablab purpureus ) is a resilient, multipurpose legume with potential to improve food and feed security, enhance soil fertility, and support climate-resilient agriculture in Tanzania’s dryland regions; however, comprehensive syntheses of its agronomic, socioeconomic, and ecological roles remain limited. To address this, a scoping review was conducted of studies published between January 2000 and June 2025 in Tanzania and comparable dryland agroecological zones in Sub-Saharan Africa. Systematic searches in Scopus and Google Scholar used structured Boolean strings including keywords related to lablab, dryland farming, forage, fodder, intercropping, nitrogen fixation, soil fertility, pests, diseases, market access, and adoption potential, and reference lists of included studies were screened manually. Of 120 full-text articles assessed, 85 met inclusion criteria and were analyzed thematically. Results show that lablab is well-adapted to semi-arid and dryland zones, contributes to soil health, supports livestock feed and human nutrition, and enhances climate-resilient farming systems, while adoption is constrained by limited farmer awareness, inadequate agronomic knowledge, scarcity of improved seeds, weak market linkages, and climate variability. These findings provide a structured evidence map of lablab’s roles, challenges, and potential, highlighting opportunities for coordinated interventions targeting seed systems, value chains, and extension services to facilitate mainstreaming, promote resilient low-input agricultural systems, and support sustainable livelihoods.

Cultivating ultra-early watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus ) in arid continental climates requires both early-season thermal protection and efficient nutrient management to ensure high yield while limiting excessive mineral fertilizer inputs. This study, conducted during the 2022–2024 growing seasons in the Karshi steppe of Uzbekistan, evaluated the performance of five ultra-early watermelon hybrids under a temporary double-layer plastic film cover used as a background technology, while comparing conventional broadcast fertilization with localized organo-mineral fertilization applied per planting nest. A randomized complete block design was employed, testing five hybrids under identical film-covered conditions. Fertilization treatments included a standard broadcast application (10 t ha −1 manure + N 150 P 120 K 75 ) and localized nest-based organo-mineral fertilization with reduced mineral NPK rates. Marketable yield, earliness, and fruit quality were assessed over three seasons. Localized fertilization significantly increased vegetative growth and marketable yield compared with broadcast application, despite a 30–40% reduction in total mineral nitrogen input. The hybrids Krimstar F1 and Montana F1 achieved the highest yields (26.1 and 25.4 t ha −1 , respectively). Importantly, fruit quality was not adversely affected: total soluble solids (TSS) remained stable across treatments (7.4–7.5%), indicating that yield gains did not compromise internal quality. These results demonstrate that localized organo-mineral fertilization under temporary film cover can maintain high productivity of ultra-early watermelon while reducing mineral nitrogen inputs. The approach represents an agronomically efficient and environmentally safer fertilization strategy for early watermelon production in arid continental agro-ecosystems.

Introduction We assessed the impact of cover crops on surface runoff in Belá, a pluvial-flood–threatened area in southwestern Slovakia with a relatively low slope. Methods Using the 2D unsteady-flow HEC-RAS model, we simulated four cropping scenarios (real, proposed, optimum, and pessimum) under a synthetic design storm with a 10-year return period. Results Scenarios incorporating cover crops (optimum and proposed) substantially reduced cumulative runoff volume. The pessimum (bare-soil) scenario produced 9.54 times higher cumulative runoff volume than the optimum scenario during the simulated event. Cover-crop scenarios also delayed peak flows by 70–130 minutes during periods of high crop or cover-crop coverage. Discussion/Conclusions The reductions and delays are attributed to improved infiltration capacity and increased surface roughness associated with continuous vegetative cover. In contrast, bare soil generated rapid, high-volume runoff, indicating high vulnerability to flash floods. Overall, continuous vegetative cover can mitigate intense rainfall impacts, and our findings provide practical recommendations for sustainable agricultural management supporting climate-change adaptation.

Introduction Continuous soil monocropping typically disrupts microecological equilibrium, leading to reduced crop yield and quality degradation, whereas crop rotation often mitigates these issues. However, understanding of the microbial mechanism behind this rotation practice is still limited. Methods A three-year field experiment was conducted comparing tobacco continuous monocropping and tobacco-rice rotation. The bacterial community structure, assembly processes, and functional profiles were analyzed within three tobacco growing periods. Results While most soil physicochemical parameters, such as pH, total phosphorus, and available phosphorus, were not significantly different between the two systems, tobacco monoculture specifically resulted in elevated contents of total nitrogen and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen compared to tobacco-rice rotation systems. Although α-diversity also showed no significant differences between systems, bacterial community composition diverged significantly, with Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Actinobacteria dominating. Deterministic processes governed community assembly, with βMNTD and βNTI exhibiting significant correlations with soil available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and pH exclusively in the rotation system-contrasting sharply with the absence of such correlations in monoculture. Tobacco-rice rotation exhibited more complex co-occurrence networks anchored by 22 topological connector taxa than tobacco monocropping. Functionally, the rotation significantly suppressed nitrifying bacteria abundance, whereas monocropping enriched dark sulfide-oxidizing bacteria. Notably, despite the absence of significant overall differences in pathogen abundance between the two cropping systems, a high variation was observed of plant pathogen abundance in the vigorous growth stage of tobacco monocropping, which indicates that certain locations possess a considerably elevated susceptibility to potential disease epidemics. Discussion Compared to continuous monocropping, tobacco-rice rotation caused minimal shifts in soil α-diversity and physicochemical properties. However, our three years field study reveals that it profoundly restructured the composition and interaction networks of the soil bacterial community. This highlights the divergent impacts of cropping systems on the soil microbiome and indicates that the benefit of rotation may stem primarily from its ability to rewire microbial interactions, thereby alleviating continuous cropping obstacles.