A qualitative method is presented to explain anthropogenic impact on the environment in the southern Levant regarding ancient land-use. Three major monocultural periods between the 4th-c. BCE and 20th-c. CE (Hellenistic, Byzantine, and Ottoman) are examined as a case study. Hellenistic olive oil presses, Byzantine winepresses, and Ottoman animal pens are extracted from archaeological survey data. The high concentration of “same type” agricultural installations per period, compared to the total, attests to the monoculture which reflects agricultural intensification and industrialization. Analysis in geographic information systems (GIS) indicates that areas of cumulatively more intense monocultural land-use caused natural vegetation-cover today with a form of land-degradation called plagioclimax. A qualitative narrative is established through the pagus, a metaphor for environmental “other” and place of extending civilization, to explain. This metaphorical pagus also corresponds to that real space which is heavily impacted by the monocultural activity. Ontological independence, which challenged divine causality, is examined through Hellenistic divination texts, Byzantine church mosaics, and Ottoman Sufi texts. These expressions reflect the geopiety, or connection between people and land, and help link the monoculture, intensification, industrialization, capitalism, and plagioclimax. The pagus, as sacrificial other, concurrently enabled conservation of additional areas that even today represent nature reserves.

Hephaestion was the most loyal friend of Alexander the Great. He was the supporter of Alexander’s policy and participated in building Alexander’s image so by creating parallels with the Homeric figures. It already started at the beginning of the Macedonian expedition when they visited Achilles and Patroclus tombs. Mourning after Hephaestion death allowed Alexander expressed deep grief in a truly Homeric way. Mourning time was the last opportunity to refer to the created by them Homeric image of friendship. Alexander wished to be remembered by his contemporaries and subsequent generations just as his ancestors did. Therefore, sometimes undertook actions that were of an image-related nature. Extraordinary way of express feelings and lavish character of funeral ceremony, number of people involved the in preparations raise the question of Alexander’s purposefulness. Important for this consideration is fact that commemorating Hephaestion also became an opportunity to aspire to divinity once again. The study aims are to analyze of actions taken by Alexander the Great after the death of his friend and consider how it influenced to Alexander’s image.

This study aims to question the reasons and consequences of the code on behalf of the empire. The article supports the idea that the code was one of the most important reform codes that helped the empire to postpone its decay in the 19th century. The study suggests that the code played a crucial role for the empire in controlling illegal settlements, increasing tax incomes and registering the people who were already living in the region by preserving their status. The study claims that the code contributed to preserving the wealth of the people living within the empire by enabling authorities to track the construction and land purchasing activities in the region. By that the study suggests that the empire achieved to learn more about desolate areas in the region by constructing new building sites, administration offices, and farming areas in order to develop the region economically and enhance Ottoman authority in the region. The threat to the demographic structure of the territory, especially after the defeat of the Crimean War, negatively affected the economy and social cohesion of the empire. Therefore, France and Britain, dwelling on the support they had provided to the empire against Russia after the Crimean War interfered with the internal and external policies of the empire, which were regarded to be threatening the sovereignty of the empire. Therefore, the study supports the idea that the code serves as a reaction to regain the Ottoman sovereignty both in and out of its boundaries after Paris Treaty (1856). As the study suggests, by the code the Ottoman authorities had a chance to keep the demographic structure of the region by preventing new incoming immigrants and settlers to the empire. The code in its basic form is supported to preserve the boundaries of the empire by preserving the wealth of people, tribes, and their demographic status where they were living in. By keeping track of the people and their land purchasing and settlement activities within the empire, the code also increased the revenues the empire collected contributed to Ottoman treasury. The study supports the idea that the code played a critical role in prolonging the lifespan of the empire beside guaranteeing the demographic structure of the region. The study employs qualitative research method by using document analysis technique.

Hunter-gatherer groups first began agriculture in Mesopotamia more than 12000 years ago. Over time, these groups learned how to plant crops in Mesopotamia to produce their own food. Each year, the floods of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates brought silt to the land, a mixture of rich soil and tiny rocks. The fertile silt has made the region ideal for farming. Though there was fertile soil in Mesopotamia, farming was not easy there. There was little rain in the area. This meant that the levels of water in the rivers Tigris and Euphrates depended on how much rain fell in the east, where the two rivers fell. Water levels were very high after a significant amount of rain fell there. The floods damaged crops, killed animals, and washed away houses, and the crops dried up when the water levels became too low. The farmers realized that they needed a way to regulate the flow of the rivers. Thus, in both the rainy and dry seasons, early farmers faced the difficulties of learning how to regulate the flow of river water to their fields, and early settlements in Mesopotamia were situated near rivers. They could not regulate the water, and flooding was a big issue. Later, people constructed canals to safeguard houses from floods and pass water to their fields. Mesopotamians used irrigation, a method of providing water to a region of land, to solve their problems. They dug out large storage basins to carry water sources to irrigate their property. Then they dug canals, rivers created by humans, linking these basins to a network of ditches. These ditches supplied the fields with water. The farmers constructed the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates in order to protect their fields from flooding. Even when river levels were heavily irrigated, these built-up banks held back flood waters, raising the amount of food farmers were able to produce. Farmers may potentially generate a food surplus, or more than they need. Farmers have also used irrigation for cattle and sheep to water grazing areas. Mesopotamians consumed a number of foods as a result. There was abundant fish, meat, wheat, barley, and dates since irrigation made farmers more productive, farming required fewer individuals. Some individuals have been free to do other work. As a consequence, new occupations have grown. People became crafters, religious figures, and government employees for the first time. A division of labor is called the type of arrangement in which each worker specializes in a specific assignment or task.

The re-invention (sometimes the evolution or devolution) of the schools of Athens as it internationalized in the late Roman Republic assumed beneath it the story of the re-invention of the town – in the case of Athens the ‘definitive’ town in a culture where ‘town’ (polis) meant something far more radically independent and hyper-competitive (both inside and outside the walls) than anything we normally mean be such a term today. An authentic, aboriginal, organic “polis” should not have been able to contemplate, much less do, the “destination city” thing. Both the idea of a ‘service city’ for passers-through and that of a ‘destination city’ – an urban community aimed beyond its locals so it might survive in part by tourists, students, ‘satellite’ working groups and families of distant businesses, localized ex-patriates of other cultures, and simply as a seller of ‘culture’ in some way. These were foreign, even as yet un-invented ideas (though Alexandria, Pergamon, Antioch and even Naples would eventually compete in the same field). Some aspects of Athens’ re-invention I have pursued in the “schools” articles in the ATINER journals (see bibliography, and on ResearchGate), and in the article on the ‘leveraging’ of Philip V to pull the western power into the East (and hopefully, at the time, to tell it what to do). The study here adds some notes, stories of focus, and some perspective to those works in this particular aspect. DPW, 2024.

Music and science have been interconnected throughout history, with both disciplines inspiring and informing each other. This article explores the theoretical and experimental connections between music and science, addressing the research question: What historical connections exist between music and scientific inquiry, and how have these relationships evolved from ancient civilizations to the present day? We delve into the profound interest of ancient Egyptian civilization in music and its significance within their culture. From ancient times to today, scientists and scholars have found inspiration, relaxation, and cognitive benefits through their involvement in music. By examining the acoustics of sound, the cognitive processes involved in music perception, and the therapeutic applications of music, this work highlights the profound impact of music on scientific inquiry and the broader human experience. We also consider how the principles of music theory have influenced scientific developments, particularly in acoustics and cognitive science, raising further questions about the cognitive and therapeutic benefits of music and their implications for contemporary research. The integration of music and science has deepened our understanding of both fields and enriched scientific endeavors, leading to advancements that shape cultures and inspire interdisciplinary collaborations. This article celebrates the harmonies of discovery that resonate through time, exploring the profound connections between music and science, and how these interactions continue to influence human experience.

This study underscores the crucial role of seal impressions on Sino-Russian treaties, viewing the indifference of seal-created visual information as a significant defect in current treaty scholarship. This research proposes that the analysis of material seals holds equal importance to the textual examination of written articles in comprehending Sino-Russian diplomatic culture. The mandatory use of official seals for signing bilateral treaties in both the Qing and Russian Empires is deeply rooted in their unique civilizations and traditions. From this background, the political culture of these empires guided the treaty negotiators to perceive the seal impressions on treaties not only as mutual commitments to fulfilling the treaty promises but also as a non-linguistic means to engage with their respective relationship positions. As a result, both written articles and visual sigillography are invaluable as primary sources in treaty research.

Cyprus used to be under occupation of the foreign states for many centuries and sovereignty usually with few exceptions was not transferred peacefully. As it is well known, in the 19th century, use of force in international relations was seen as normal. In the 1878 however, transformation of sovereignty in Cyprus from the Ottoman Empire to the United Kingdom (UK) was by peaceful means. The UK ruled Cyprus mostly in peace until the uprising in 1931. The upheaval of the Greek Cypriots against the UK was to unite Cyprus with Greece (Enosis). The uprising was settled by violence and the constitutional rights suspended immediately. In 1955 when the riot of the Greek Cypriots occurred again this time the UK was successful to get support of Türkiye and the Turkish Cypriots and converted the anti-colonial struggle to the ethnic strife. Clearly, the occurrence of violence in Cyprus in 20th Century begun during the British period but it continued after the colonial period. Although the United States (US) refrained direct involvement to Cyprus problem it assisted to the formation of the Republic of Cyprus by 1960s. During the Cold War conditions, the US had to involve to the Cyprus problem because of two reasons: Firstly, in order to prevent a war between Türkiye and Greece, the two “motherlands” of the Turkish and Greek Cypriots; secondly to stop the violence between two local communities. In Washington DC the US leadership met with Greek and Turkish prime ministers in 1964 and they decided to solve the Cyprus problem forever. In Geneva the US representative had several meetings with the officials of Greece and Türkiye. There, the US former secretary of state offered his plan that included the use of violence for the dissolution of the Republic of Cyprus. The US plan could not be implemented at the time but after 10 years, its spirit became the source of the violence in Cyprus. In this study mainly the role of the US in occurrence of violence in the island will be studied.