The nuclides examined in this study, Sr-90 and Cs-137, are artificial radioactive isotopes, and theirpresence in the European environment is primarily associated with radioactive fallout from the 1986Chernobyl disaster. Since ingestion is one of the main pathways for the intake of radioisotopes intoorganisms, the radioactive concentrations of Sr-90 and Cs-137 in the diet of Polish residents werestudied. To estimate the intake of Sr-90 and Cs-137 through food, their levels in daily meals weremeasured annually in Warsaw, the capital city of Poland. The radioactive concentrations measuredranged from 0.03 to 0.07 Bq/day for Sr-90 and from 0.06 to 0.23 Bq/day for Cs-137. The combinedeffective doses from Sr-90 and Cs-137 varied between 0.69 and 1.60 μSv/year.

In addition to the catastrophic effects on the environment, infrastructure and the population, the2024 flood in Poland demonstrated additional means of pressure characteristic of hybrid warfare,unprecedented in this type of threat. At issue is false information spread through social media andprivate messaging platforms, triggering social unrest and division. It is social media platforms, withtheir structure for instantaneous sharing of news, that provide an exceptionally fertile environmentfor the spread of disinformation. The content was intended to undermine trust in public institutions,dividing local communities, and realistically affecting the undertaken rescue efforts.The aim of the research, the results of which are presented in the article, was to identify socio-politicaleffects of disinformation during the flood in question. The article attempts to find how falseinformation and data manipulation influenced citizens’ attitudes, the actions of public institutions,and political decision-making during the crisis. In order to effectively comprehend the social andpolitical dynamics during this type of emergency, it was necessary to look at the role played bydisinformation in shaping attitudes and decisions during difficult times. The findings highlight therole of emotional triggers in amplifying disinformation and point to the need of developing mediaeducation, content verification tools and regulation to mitigate its effects during crises.

The article attempts to thoroughly address the issue of suspending firefighters from their duties during the years 2013–2024. It involves the applicable legal regulations, stages of administrative procedures, and the authorities responsible for issuing such decisions. The article also examines the legal and professional implications of suspension. A novel aspect in the research approach is the inclusion of statistical data regarding the number and course of proceedings in the discussed period, which not only describe the legal mechanisms but also evaluate their practical functioning. The aim of the article is to analyze the legal and practical aspects of suspending firefighters from their duties and to assess the effectiveness of this institution in light of the data from 2013–2024. The work aims not only to present the procedures but also to add value by diagnosing administrative practice in this area, constituting a new element in Polish literature on the subject. The following research questions have been posed: Is the firefighter suspension procedure in line with the principles of the rule of law and does it provide the officer with appropriate guarantees? What are the legal, professional, and social effects of suspension from service? Was the suspension institution applied more frequently in certain years and for what reasons? The following hypotheses have also been formulated: 1. The procedure for suspending an officer is highly formalized and standardized, yet not always transparent to the participants in the proceedings. 2. Suspension causes significant and lasting legal and social effects on the officer, regardless of the final outcome. 3. During the analyzed period, significant quantitative and qualitative changes in the application of the suspension institution can be observed. The study applied the method of legal (dogmatic) analysis through a review of the legislation governing the suspension of officers in their duties, case law, and literature on the subject. The empirical part employed statistical analysis—the numerical data concerning administrative proceedings conducted by the relevant authorities in the years 2013–2024 were compiled. This data was obtained from official sources (reports from the National Headquarters of the Fire Service, public inquiries), allowing a reliable comparative analysis. The innovative nature of the work is demonstrated in the combination of normative analysis with an empirical assessment of the effectiveness and frequency of suspension in practice. Previous publications have mainly focused on the description of legal provisions—this study fills a gap in the literature by evaluating to what extent suspensions are implemented in accordance with the letter and spirit of the law and what effects they have on officers.

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between economic sovereignty and the level of economic security of NATO's eastern flank states, with particular focus on the impact that the degree of economic independence has on the ability of the state to ensure stability, resilience and the development of its economy. The study aims to understand how economic sovereignty of the state translates into its ability to ensure stability, resilience and economic development. By analysing selected indicators of economic sovereignty and economic security, the study aims to provide a more comprehensive perspective on the role of economic sovereignty in the context of ensuring economic security of the state. For the purpose of the study, a critical analysis of the literature and a statistical analysis were used to assess the relationship between economic sovereignty and state economic security. The study covers 9 countries of NATO's eastern flank, which include: Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary. The analysis was conducted at different levels of aggregation, focusing on the macroeconomic analysis of the national economies under study. The main research problem of this study is an attempt to find an answer to the question of whether the economic sovereignty of the state is an important determinant of its level of economic security, providing greater independence, control over resources and the ability to effectively manage economic policy. The study aims to identify the key determinants of economic sovereignty, to analyse mechanisms through which economic sovereignty influences economic security and to assess the consequences of this influence on the economic development of the state. The assumption that a higher level of economic sovereignty positively influences the economic security of states by providing them with greater stability and resilience in the case of external economic, political and financial crises was adopted as the primary research hypothesis. In order to achieve the stated aim of the article, the Perkal method was also used to accurately assess the relationship between economic sovereignty and economic security, taking into account both internal and external factors affecting both variables. The results of the analysis, based on a correlation coefficient of 0.69, indicate a strong positive correlation between economic sovereignty and the level of economic security of NATO's eastern flank countries. This implies that states with higher economic sovereignty, characterised by greater independence and the ability to manage resources and economic policies effectively, achieve a higher level of economic stability, which promotes their resilience to crises and external threats. The study also provided an understanding that economic sovereignty not only enables states to better manage their resources, but also gives them greater flexibility and capacity to make economic decisions, which affects their long-term development and security.

One form of civil protection is humanitarian aid, which is most often defined as the provision ofnecessary assistance and support to people exposed to long-term crises and assistance in emergencysituations caused by natural or man-made disasters. Such assistance was also provided to those whofound themselves on the territory of Poland after 24 February 2022. Humanitarian assistance wasalso provided on the territory of Ukraine, which posed an additional challenge for groups carryingout humanitarian missions. Aid activities on the territory of both countries would not have beenpossible if it were not for the organisational skills, including mainly the coordination skills of groupscarrying out the aid. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to show the impact of local situationalleadership on the coordination of humanitarian aid. The research problem, on the other hand, wasformulated as the question “how does local situational leadership influence the coordination of localhumanitarian aid?” The subject of the research is the use of leadership in the process of organisinglocal humanitarian aid. The research was carried out using the participatory observation method.The results of the observation showed the great importance of situational leadership in coordinatinghumanitarian aid. It was shown that good coordination of activities is primarily based on skilfulleadership of people and bringing out their potentials, building on an organisational culture based ontrust, respect and a sense of security of all team members.

This article discusses the specifics of the development of the Hungarian Volunteer Fire Department, focusing on the latest data following the implementation of the centralized Disaster Management System in 2012. Both the overall evolution and distribution of Hungarian Volunteer Fire Department units is going to be showcased and discussed through a selection of certain graphic elements. A comprehensive examination of postulates expressed by Hungarian fire brigades, as well as of certain governmental announcements, will indicate both the potential and difficulties associated with the further development of such units. The article will also address the impact of Volunteer Fire Departments on both internal and external Hungarian security basing on an analysis of chosen rescue and firefighting-oriented undertakings, as well as of logistic support provided after 2020.

Road transport is one of the most dangerous modes of transport, as evidenced by data from theWorld Health Organization (WHO), which reports 1.19 million fatalities annually. Consequently,research into improving road safety is gaining importance. One of the solutions aimed at enhancingroad safety is constituted by intelligent transport systems (ITS), which deploy advanced technologiesfor monitoring and optimizing traffic flow. The implementation of ITS is supported by the EuropeanCommission and is underway in several cities. One of the most advanced ITS systems in Poland isoperating in Łódź. Therefore, the goal of this article is to present the intelligent transport systemimplemented in Łódź and its impact on road safety.

The aim of the research was to assess the state of eutrophication of the Goczałkowice dam reservoirin 2021 and 2022. The Goczałkowice reservoir is located in southern Poland, in Central Europe. Thisreservoir has flood control and water supply functions, therefore the purity of its waters is veryimportant. The reservoir is surrounded by numerous agricultural fields and rural areas withouta sewage system. This significantly contributes to the increase in the fertility of the reservoir water.The samples for algae research were taken during the vegetation season in 2021 and 2022 during 6months from two research points (from May to October) – G 1 and G 2. The assessment of thetrophic state of studied reservoir parts was based on limit values given by Heinonen for the totalphytoplankton biomass and the OECD limit values for chlorophyll a, total phosphorus and totalnitrogen.The results of the research regarding the average size of algae biomass in the reservoir water indicatea prevailing meso-/eutrophic (2.96 mgdm-3 – G 1 and 2.73 mgdm-3 – G 2 in 2021) and eutrophicstate of the water (3.15 mgdm-3 – G 1 and 2.94 mgdm-3 – G 2 in 2022) at the studied sites in bothyears of the research (the boundary values of the phytoplankton biomass for meso- /eutrophy andeutrophy amount to 1.98 mgdm-3 – 3.45 mgdm-3 and 3.45 mgdm-3 – 6.93 mgdm-3 respectively). Thenumerous Cyanobacteria (i.a. Microcystis viridis, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Planktothrix agardhii),green algae (i.a. Pediastrum boryanum, Coelastrum microporum) and diatoms (i.a. Aulacoseiragranulata, Nitzschia acicularis and Nitzschia sigmoidea) have been observed in the reservoir water.These taxa are typical for eutrophic waters.High concentrations of total nitrogen (in the range of 0.57 mgdm-3 and 1.6 mgdm-3) and totalphosphorus (between 0.034 mgdm-3 and 0.1 mgdm-3) allowed the reservoir water in the area of thedam to be classified as eutrophic and periodically hypertrophic, especially in the summer (theboundary values of the total phosphorus and total nitrogen concentrations for eutrophy amount to0.035 mgdm-3 – 0.1 mgdm-3 and 0.6 mgdm-3 – 1.5 mgdm-3 respectively). This is particularlydangerous due to the fact that this reservoir is used as a water supply source.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics has collapsed. The republics have regained their autonomyand subjectivity and became independent states. Russia began to be perceived as a partner ratherthan an enemy. We were accustomed to a situation in which the threats to the security of our existencewere far away from the European borders. The main security challenge was primarily terrorism.Countries around the world have begun to set up counter-terrorism sub-units with the major taskbeing principally to carry out combat operations in hostage rescue operations and to counter terroristattacks by apprehending or eliminating terrorists. The establishing of counter-terrorist sub-units wasbased on models taken from elite military units, the so-called special units. The new situation –Russia’s war against Ukraine – led to recognition of the potential of counter-terrorism forces duringarmed conflicts.

The article addresses the issue of cooperation between border services (the Border Guard and theNational Revenue Administration) and local government units in the area of the Medyka bordercrossing in the context of the armed conflict in Ukraine. The paper is theoretical in nature andconstitutes part of a broader research project, the results of which have been divided into two separateand independent scientific articles. Part I was published in this journal, Scientific Reports of the FireUniversity (Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP), under the title: “Customs and border systems on the externalborder of the EU on the example of the border crossing in Medyka – legal and economic aspects”,issue No. (93), 2.The analytical section primarily employs the legal analysis method, focusing on the applicableregulations and the mechanisms of cooperation between the indicated institutions. Additionally, theauthors refer to selected results of empirical research conducted using the diagnostic survey method,concerning the impact of the influx of war refugees on the socio-economic situation of local governmentunits and the level of residents’ sense of security after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. The obtainedresults highlight both difficulties and good practices observed at the local level, particularly inmunicipalities located in the immediate vicinity of the European Union’s external border.