Vaccination remains the most promising long-term strategy for controlling leishmaniasis, as individuals who recover from primary infection generally develop protective immunity. However, no vaccine is currently available for human use. In this study, we identified two immunogenic proteins that may account for the protective effect previously observed with the Leishmania amazonensis microsomal fraction (MicF), which confers protection in murine models. Both proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli and used to immunize mice, eliciting specific humoral responses and promoting elevated production of Th1-associated cytokines. Considering the well-documented difficulty in inducing effective immunity against L. amazonensis, a species associated with diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis and marked host anergy, the identification of these proteins as strong immunogens is noteworthy. Collectively, our findings provide preliminary evidence supporting the Leishmania homolog of receptors for activated C kinase (LACK) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) as potential vaccine candidates against L. amazonensis.

Echinococcosis, caused by Echinococcus multilocularis (Em) and Echinococcus granulosus (Eg), induces distinct patterns of liver fibrosis. Understanding how protoscoleces (PSCs) from these species interact with hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is crucial to elucidating the mechanisms of fibrogenesis. In this study, HSC-LX2 cells were co-cultured with Em and Eg PSCs. ELISA was used to quantify collagen-I, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), osteopontin (OPN), and TNF-α levels, while transmission electron microscopy (TEM) examined ultrastructural changes. Both Em- and Eg-derived PSCs significantly increased ECM protein expression, but Em PSCs induced earlier and stronger responses, accompanied by more pronounced structural alterations in HSCs. These findings demonstrate species-specific HSC activation and provide insight into the differential fibrogenic potential of Em and Eg.

Understanding how host-parasite relationships respond to environmental factors across long periods of time is vital to understanding the dynamics of parasitic infections. We studied blood parasite infections in two sympatric species of Podarcis lizards in Northern Portugal between 2011 and 2013 and in 2021, analysing parasite data together with host traits and microclimatic conditions to understand how this relationship was maintained through time. Relationships between host traits and parasite infection remained consistent across years, suggesting changes to infection parameters are more dependent on environmental factors than host adaptation. Warmer and drier conditions were significantly related with higher parasite infection prevalence and drier conditions with intensity, although the magnitude of the latter was dependant on host sex. The climatic trend observed during sampled years was of cooling conditions, congruent with the decrease in parasite infection parameters observed, although the lack of intermediate time points means it is unclear if this is a trend or just an isolated drop in prevalence. We also provide insights into a framework for using data obtained through different methodologies in linear model analyses, by homogenising the varying certainty of observations from different methods.

Aquaculture has become a dominant contributor to global seafood production, providing essential protein and supporting livelihoods while alleviating pressure on wild fish stocks. However, cultured fish face numerous health challenges, including infestations by parasitic isopods, notably cymothoid and gnathiid species, which cause significant economic losses through reduced growth, compromised health, and mortality. Infestations are usually influenced by host factors, environmental conditions, parasite traits, and aquaculture management practices, including cage design, stocking density, water quality, and interactions with wild fish populations. Pathological effects range from tissue damage and anaemia to impaired growth, secondary infections, and mortality, particularly in juvenile fish. Effective management relies on integrated strategies combining preventive husbandry, environmental manipulation, biological control, selective breeding, and targeted chemical interventions, with an emphasis on reducing reinfection and limiting resistance development. Emerging approaches, including immunotherapy, gene editing, natural compounds, nanotechnology, and biosensors, show promise for sustainable control but remain largely experimental and require further validation. Future research should focus on life-cycle dynamics, host-parasite interactions, and eco-friendly interventions to improve prevention and management in intensive aquaculture systems. This review synthesises current knowledge on parasitic isopods in aquaculture, highlighting the need for integrated, ecologically informed strategies to safeguard fish health, ensure production sustainability, and mitigate economic losses.

Wolbachia are the most pervasive bacterial endosymbionts yet described, infecting half of all arthropod species. These bacteria trigger outstanding phenotypes in their hosts including cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), which has also been used as a mechanism to control pest species. Here, we analyzed peer-reviewed articles published in the 30 years from 1995 to 2024. Our results show that most studies continue to use traditional methods such as PCR and Sanger sequencing, approaches that remain sufficient and appropriate in many cases, particularly when working with well-characterized strains or applied systems. Only a smaller proportion of studies have employed newer genome-based techniques, which are increasingly important for exploring Wolbachia diversity and uncovering novel mechanisms. Research has focused mainly on a small number of insect groups and a limited set of Wolbachia strains. In addition, most work focuses on CI, especially since the discovery of cif genes related to this trait. Although the use of Wolbachia in pest and disease control is expanding, other possible effects and interactions with different microbes remain less explored. Our analysis shows how the field has advanced through some key discoveries, while many studies continue to use established approaches and concentrate on a limited set of hosts and strains. To make further progress, we suggest using a wider range of methods and sampling a broader set of hosts, alongside integrating genetic tools with studies of natural populations. This work outlines clear areas where more research is needed and points to ways the field can develop a fuller understanding of Wolbachia and its roles in nature.

Haemoparasites of Australian reptiles remain poorly documented, with much of the available knowledge derived from studies conducted several decades ago. Using archived blood smears, this study examined the occurrence, morphology, and host associations of haemoprotozoans in two gecko species (Gehyra dubia and Hemidactylus frenatus), two freshwater turtle species (Emydura macquarii krefftii and Muchelys latisternum), and an associated turtle leech (Placobdelloides bancrofti) from northern Queensland, Australia. A total of 332 gecko blood smears were examined, with no blood parasites detected, suggesting that infections were absent, rare, or below the detection threshold at the time of sampling. In contrast, protistan parasites were detected in 93% of 15 freshwater turtles examined, with high prevalence of both haemogregarines and trypanosomes and frequent co-infections. Morphological characteristics and developmental stages of haemogregarines were consistent with the genus Haemogregarina, and similar with Haemogregarina clelandi, representing a new geographic record. Trypanosome infections occurred as multiple trypomastigote morphotypes consistent with previous descriptions of Trypanosoma chelodinae and related forms. All 38 leech crop smears examined were positive for Trypanosoma spp., predominantly at the epimastigote stage, supporting the role of P. bancrofti as a vector of turtle trypanosomes in Australian freshwater systems. This study highlights marked contrasts in haemoprotozoan occurrence between terrestrial and aquatic reptiles, reinforces the importance of leeches in turtle parasite transmission, and demonstrates the value of archived blood smears for establishing historical baselines and addressing knowledge gaps in Australian reptile parasitology.

Sarcoptic mange is the clinical disease caused by the burrowing mite Sarcoptes scabiei, an obligate ectoparasitic arthropod responsible for significant morbidity in both domestic and wild animals. The aim of the study was to investigate the serological prevalence of S. scabiei var. suis in pigs raised in the intensive system in Lombardy region, one of the most suitable regions in northern Italy for intensive pig farming, and to assess the influence of variables related to farm management on the exposure to mite infestation. 219 fattening pigs and 151 sows from 23 conventional farms in Lombardy were sampled; data on farm management were collected, and a biosecurity score was determined for each farm. Blood samples were analysed using a commercial indirect ELISA Kit; generalized linear models were developed to determine the influence of production category and sanitary score on the parasite infestation. At the farm level, 65.2% (15/23) of the selected farms were positive, i.e. 90.9% of those housing sows and 40% fattening pigs. At the individual level, 43 animals (43/370, Prevalence (P%) = 11.6%) were positive to S. scabiei antibodies with higher seroprevalence values in sows (35/151, P = 23.2%) if compared to fattening pigs (8/219, P = 3.6%). A higher seroprevalence was recorded in farms with poor or moderate scores (P = 100% and P = 64.3%, respectively) if compared to those with higher sanitary score (P = 44.4%). Statistical analysis revealed that production category and biosecurity score were significantly associated with the mite infestation. Sarcoptic mange can lead to significant economic losses in pig farming; besides, the zoonotic risk for human infestation due to handling of pig or carcasses should be considered.

This study characterized and identified amphistomes collected from cattle slaughtered at selected abattoirs in Zimbabwe, using both morphological and molecular techniques. Amphistomes were collected from 158 cattle originating from 14 localities, slaughtered in abattoirs in Harare and Bulawayo. One-hundred and twenty-one amphistome specimens were selected and sectioned into two portions, one piece for morphological characterization based on histological sectioning using haematoxylin and eosin staining, and the other piece for molecular identification based on the ITS-2 gene. Morphological characters classified the amphistomes into ten species as follows; Calicophoron (C.) calicophorum, C. microbothrium, C. clavula, C. raja, C. phillerouxi, C. sukari, Paramphistomum (P.) gracile, P. hibarniae, Carmyerius (Ca.) multivitellarius, Cotylophoron (Co.) cotylophorum, and unidentified Paramphistomum sp. Calicophoron was the most common genus, and C. microbothrium was the most common and widely distributed species recorded across the14 localities. The ITS-2 gene was able to confirm the identification of C. microbothrium, C. clavula, C. raja, C. calicophorum and C. phillerouxi. There were no comparative ITS-2 sequences for C. sukari, P. gracile and P. hibarniae on the GenBank. Hence, specimens identified morphologically as C. sukari showed a100% homology to multiple Calicophoron species, but grouped with C. raja. Furthermore, Ca. multivitellarius specimens confirmed the genus identity by forming sister clade with other Carmyerius spp. There were no species-level resolution for Paramphistomum sp., P. gracile and P. hibarniae, as these isolates formed a clade with Paramphistomum sp. (OQ459353.1). The study resulted in new geographical records for P. gracile, P. hibarniae and Ca. multivitellarius in Zimbabwe, hence adding new knowledge to the geographical distribution of these species within Africa.

Thread herrings (Opisthonema spp.) are ecologically and economically important small pelagic fishes in the Gulf of California, yet their parasitic fauna remains poorly documented. Given their role in regional fisheries and marine food webs, clarifying the identity of anisakid nematodes infecting these fishes is relevant for food safety surveillance. In this study, we examined 306 individuals of Opisthonema libertate, 25 of O. medirastre, and 89 of O. bulleri collected from multiple fishing grounds between 2022 and 2023. A total of 140 third-stage anisakid larvae were recovered from O. libertate, whereas infections were rare in the other two host species. Molecular analyses of the ITS rDNA region confirmed the presence of Contracaecum bioccai and revealed an additional Contracaecum species that could not be assigned to species level. Although infection intensities were low, the occurrence of anisakid nematodes belonging to a genus that includes species associated with anisakidosis highlights the importance of continued monitoring of small pelagic fishes in the region. In addition to anisakids, the parasite assemblage of O. libertate was dominated by digeneans, and multivariate analyses revealed significant spatial variation in infracommunity structure across fishing grounds. Similar spatial patterns reported previously were also detected in the present survey, indicating reproducible interannual differences within the Gulf of California. These findings provide the first molecular confirmation of anisakid species infecting O. libertate in the region and underscore the complementary value of parasitological research for food safety and fisheries science.

Bovine babesiosis, caused by Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina, is a major cattle disease in South Africa. This study combined prospective (2022-2023) and archived (2016-2022) DNA samples to assess molecular prevalence and serological exposure to Babesia spp. across thirteen dip tanks in the Mnisi area (Mpumalanga), plus five additional high-risk areas: Manaleni and Boekenhouthoek (Mpumalanga), Phuthaditjaba and Harrismith (Free State), Bergville (KZN). TaqMan quantitative PCR (qPCR) and indirect fluorescent antibody testing (IFAT) were used to assess current parasitaemia and prior exposure. In Mnisi, 81/216 cattle tested positive for at least one Babesia spp. (38%, 95% CI: 0.31-0.44), comprising 41 single B. bovis infections (19%, 95% CI: 0.14-0.25), 12 single B. bigemina infections (6%, 95% CI: 0.03-0.09), and 28 mixed infections (13%, 95% CI: 0.09-0.18), while 135 animals were negative (63%, 95% CI: 0.56-0.69). In the remaining areas, 113/187 cattle were positive (60%, 95% CI: 0.53-0.67). The overall prevalence of B. bigemina was highest in the Free State (51%), while B. bovis was predominant in KZN (62%), with Mpumalanga showing a higher relative occurrence of B. bovis (32%) than B. bigemina (22%). Agreement analysis from Mnisi subset (n = 101, 2022) with paired IFAT and qPCR results revealed slight agreement for B. bovis (K = 0.12, 95% CI: -0.05-0.29), with McNemar's exact test confirming systematic rather than random discordance (χ2 = 12.26, p = 0.00046). This supports the complementary application of both assays, as qPCR and IFAT reflect active parasitaemia and historical exposure, respectively, informing enzootic stability monitoring and control strategies.