It was discovered in the literature (Lee 1978, 1999; Kiefer 1978, Őzyildiz 2017, Lee 2017) that the epistemic attitude report ‘know’ in Korean, Turkish, and Hungarian reveal factivity alternation and this rare phenomenon has been recently investigated also in such Altaic languages as Mongolian, Uyghur, Manchurian, and Azerbaijan, as first reported here. The attitude report ‘know’ in most languages so far known typically selects for a factive complement (Kiparsky and Kiparsky 1970, Hintikka 1975 a.o.). One generalization made is that nominalized complements tend to convey a factive reading, while non-nominal ones tend not to (Kastner 2015, Moulton 2015 a.o.). This work demonstrates that for a clause selected by a cognitive epistemic attitude verb to have a factive reading, it bears a nominal (D) feature with a structural case, whereas a clause for a non-factive reading, it does not, in alternation languages and possibly beyond. This work shows that a nominalized clause with the internal type ‘pro-fact’ noun -(u)n kes in Korean (and in Japanese as well with koto), witness-based, is factively presupposed by itself and contradicted if predicated by negated veracious adjectives in a veridicality test. It is embedded also by a doxastic verb such as mit- ‘believe.’ The non-factive alternants of ‘know’ in all the languages logically belong to the doxastic category of ‘believe’, though with implication of evidential justification in distinction with the real ‘believe,’ undergoing neg-raising, revealing their anti-rogativity. Thus, more weight is given to complements typing than to attitude reports typing.

Bayesian networks are useful analytical models for designing the structure of knowledge in machine learning. Probabilistic dependency relationships among the variables can be represented by Bayesian networks. One strategy of a structure learning Bayesian Networks is the score and search technique. In this paper, we present a new method for structure learning of the Bayesian network which is based on Pigeon Inspired Optimization (PIO) Algorithm. The proposed algorithm is a simple one with fast convergence rate. In nature, the navigational ability of pigeons is unbelievable and highly impressive. In accordance with the PIO search algorithm, a set of directed acyclic graphs is defined. Every graph owns a score which shows its fitness. The algorithm is iterated until it gets the best solution or a satisfactory network structure using map and compass, and landmark operator. In this work, the proposed method compared with Simulated Annealing, Bee optimization and Simulated Annealing as a hybrid algorithm, Bee optimization and Greedy search as a hybrid algorithm, and Greedy Search using BDeu score function. We also investigated the confusion matrix performances of the methods. The paper presents the results of extensive evaluations of these algorithms based on common benchmark data sets. The results indicate that the proposed algorithm has better performance than the other algorithms and produces higher scores and accuracy values.

The present work tests the effect of attentional distractors on participants'' path movement. This influence on movement was measured, in a series of three experiments, both as an involuntary deviations in the trajectory in a tracking task and as the probability of taking the left/right-branch in a Y-junction of a simulated road. The effects found in previous works have shown relevant implications for road safety. None of previous theoretical models are able to account for most of present and those previous results. Three different attentional cues were used to test if the path movement of University students was influenced. Endogenous and exogenous attentional cues were used in a series of the three experiment. Data show the key role of both the meaning per se of cues and the context--in which these cues are presented--in determining the kind of effect on movement. The most relevant result is that participants approach to the location in which traffic signs were presented. In this sense, I discuss the relevance of the results from a cognitive-ergonomic point of view. Regarding its theoretical contribution, findings support recently-proposed accounts for the relationship between attention and movement (MDRA model).

The present paper reports on a study which aims to explore the potential of using multimedia animations to make grammar principles of cognitive linguistic explanations more transparent to learners. Fourty-nine students of German received instruction on the German passive voice. A first group (CA) worked with a cognitive linguistic explanation of the German passive by means of multimedia animations and performed tasks that aimed to foster the relevant conceptualization processes. Another group (TA) was presented with a form-based explanation of the German passive mainly focusing on the syntactic features. The results show that the CA group significantly outperformed the TA group, especially in the tasks where the passive was tested in larger discursive contexts and made use of the different types of passive sentences in a more appropriate way.

This article explores the patterns of intra-sentential code-switching in actual conversational interactions of educated and non-educated Efik-English bilinguals. A non-educated bilingual has limited English language proficiency while the educated bilingual is fluent in English; hence the tendency for switching among the latter category is higher. The study recognizes some social, cultural and situational factors that come to play as code-switching manifests as a communicative strategy amongst these bilinguals. Data for the study were sourced from interviews, metalinguistic conversations and recordings of naturally occurring interactions of educated and non-educated bilinguals. The study is based theoretically on Muysken’s (2000) typology of language mixing which involves the insertion of materials from one language into the structure from the other language and the alternation between structures of the two languages.The article concludes that the non-educated bilingual supplements code-switching as an innovative discourse mechanism while the educated bilingual uses the device as a complementary function which increases the impact of his or her language use and provides continuity for social negotiations in discourse. English serves as the matrix language for the educated bilinguals, and it is the embedded language for the non-educated bilinguals while Efik is the matrix language of the non-educated bilingual, and the embedded language of the educated bilingual. Among these bilinguals, code-switching enhances communication flow and provides a more favorable response to bilingualism.

The goal of this study was to explore the effect of the case-marking information from pre-verbal arguments on the anticipatory processing of Korean sentences. More specifically, it was examined whether the case-markers can be used to predict an upcoming argument even before it is introduced into the string. In our eye-tracking experiment using the visual-world paradigm, 24 adult native speakers of Korean showed significantly more anticipatory eye-movements to the potential referent of a Theme object as soon as hearing the sequence of a nominative-marked NP and a dative-marked NP, as compared to when the second NP is accusative-marked. These results confirm the predictive mechanism of the parsing system and the case effect on the prediction in Korean: that is, guided by the case-marking information which is available earlier in the input, the parser can predict a forthcoming argument and thus activate a structural representation of the currently processed sentence. In this way, a verb-final sentence can be interpreted incrementally and predictively as well at each moment of processing.