In this paper I propose a novel interpretation of Darwin’s aesthetic theory that takes its occasion in his reading of the work of Stendhal. Leveraging Lorraine Daston’s concept of “local natures,” I argue that we can fruitfully understand Darwin’s work relative to a long European tradition of speculations regarding the power of climate and environment to shape living forms, psychology, and cultural expression. After exploring the relevant outlines of this tradition during the eighteenth century, I provide an exploration of Darwin’s early aesthetic theories, appraising the role played by the category of the “beau ideal,” and how Darwin tied together a broad range of resources through a hereditary theory of mind that was, in turn, opened to the logic of local nature theory. Moving outwards from transmutational theories of mind to those of physical forms, I ultimately claim that sexual selection does not represent the totality of Darwin’s aesthetics, and that we must rebalance our views by taking seriously the role of local nature theory in his thought, as well as nonselective mechanisms of evolution. Appreciated in this manner, Darwin’s thought takes on an unfamiliar complexion, destabilizing some of the fundamental frameworks and categories we use to understand cultural and aesthetic products. In a conceptual world of hereditary mental properties, where environments slowly shape the forms of beings within them, what does a natural history of aesthetics look like?

This article investigates the history, dispersal, and partial recovery of the natural history collection of Merzifon Anatolia College, a missionary institution founded in 1886 in central Anatolia under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Developed through the scientific and pedagogical efforts of Professor Johannes Jacob Manissadjian and his students, the museum once housed thousands of botanical, entomological, zoological, geological, and paleontological specimens. Located in a purpose-built museum-library complex completed in the 1910s, the collection represented one of the most ambitious scientific enterprises undertaken by a non-state Ottoman institution. Following the upheavals of the First World War and the foundational transformations of the Turkish Republic, the college ceased operations, and the fate of its museum remained uncertain. Drawing upon archival materials, rediscovered catalogs, and specimen inventories, this study reconstructs the intellectual and institutional history of the collection, and traces its partial reconstitution through its unexpected rediscovery at Tarsus American College in the 2010s. By situating the Merzifon Anatolia College collection within the broader context of Late Ottoman scientific modernization and missionary education, this article argues that the forgotten marginal natural history collections are not merely the casualties of time, but the result of historiographical choices. In tracing the afterlife of the Merzifon collection, the article highlights the role of forgotten institutions and actors in shaping scientific knowledge beyond imperial centers.

The international legal responsibility of states is one of the fundamental and oldest institutions of international law. In modern international law, one of the guiding principles is the principle of sovereign equality. According to this principle, states participate in mutual relations and multilateral international communication, each possessing sovereignty in internal affairs and independence in foreign policy. According to the theory of international law, the subjects of international responsibility are the subjects of international law themselves. The Draft Articles adopted by the UN General Assembly were primarily devoted to the responsibility of states toward other states. However, it should be noted that the general part of the Articles also covers the responsibility of states toward other subjects of international law. This article examines and analyzes the historical development and codification process of state responsibility in international law, the content of the Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts adopted by the UN International Law Commission, as well as the grounds, principles, forms, and methods of holding states internationally accountable. It should be emphasized that the issue of types and forms of international legal responsibility remains relevant in modern international law doctrine. The concept of international legal responsibility of the state forms the foundation for maintaining the international order. However, since 2001-when the International Law Commission (ILC) completed the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts - the world has undergone radical changes: global environmental threats, transnational and cyber risks, pandemics, and large-scale conflicts have emerged. Global security crises, the limited jurisdiction of international courts, the growing role of non-state actors, and the political dependence of international law all complicate the implementation of state responsibility. Nevertheless, the institution of international legal responsibility remains the main mechanism ensuring the application of international legal norms among states. The relevance of this institution continues to increase in a rapidly changing and globalizing world. The purpose of the article is to reveal the essence of the institution of state responsibility in international law, determine its legal foundations, and analyze the main trends in its development.

The period of Humanism is a stage in the intellectual history of Europe during which language was understood not only as a means of communication, but also as a fundamental instrument shaping thought. In this era, the boundaries of cognition were redefined, and the philosophical analysis of the language–meaning relationship became a central focus. In this context, although Lorenzo Valla is usually known only for his work “The Donation of Constantine”, evaluating his philosophical views solely on the basis of this text does not sufficiently reflect the essence of the humanist language conception. The work in question, in addition to proving the falsity of a political document, also serves as a typical example of humanist linguistic thinking. The article analyzes Lorenzo Valla’s humanist language conception in comparison with the ideas of representatives of other humanist and philosophical traditions — Juan Luis Vives, Pietro Bembo, and William Ockham. In the research, Valla’s approach to the relationship between meaning and expression is examined through an analytical method, and his philological style is evaluated in terms of its influence on the formation of humanist thought. Furthermore, the study draws attention to the incorrectness of reducing Valla’s philosophical–linguistic views in academic literature to only one work, and investigates the process of development of the language conception in the period of Humanism through the historical-philosophical method. As a result, it is determined that Lorenzo Valla made a significant contribution to the development of both the philological and philosophical traditions in the history of humanist thought, and was one of the main humanists who reconceptualized the function of language in the cognitive process.

This research study addresses the concept of doctrinal content, introduces the curriculum and the secondary school level as a conceptual framework, and then extracts the doctrinal content from the first-year secondary Islamic Education curriculum as a model. This is achieved by briefly presenting the content through an analysis of the doctrinal lesson and highlighting the doctrinal values derived from it. The study aims to answer the main research question: What are the most important doctrinal contents included in the Islamic Education curriculum at this level? The study arrives at several conclusions, the most important of which is that doctrinal content refers to the doctrinal issues contained within the curriculum, while from an educational perspective, it refers to the scientific method and approach used to educate, develop, evaluate, and guide the student's doctrinal behavior and thought. The doctrinal contents in the curriculum are the doctrinal issues and matters included within the curriculum. The curriculum is a fundamental pillar of the educational process, encompassing the subjects taught and their content. Monotheism is considered the primary objective of belief in general, and of doctrinal content in particular. The curriculum's approach to presenting doctrinal content is designed to be relevant to the modern era and to cultivate the student's doctrinal character. However, the desired outcome depends on the teacher and their method of presenting the topics, employing techniques such as analysis, description, and illustration to solidify doctrinal values.

The article analyses the philosophical and reformist views of Peter Ramus, a representative of the Renaissance period. He, as one of the prominent reformers of the Renaissance period, left a profound legacy behind. The article notes that Ramus significantly influenced the development of scentific thought through the educational and philosophical reforms he implemented. His contributions to the effective advancement of education earned him considerable renown. The article emphasizes his important role in bringing systematicity and order to education. The primary aim of his reforms was to demonstrate efficient methods for mastering knowledge. His textbooks on dialectics, rhetoric, and grammar, co-authored with Omar Talon, are emphasized as having reshaped the Renaissance educational system. His interest in mathematics and the natural sciences reflected his belief that thinking should possess an organized structure. Ramus’s views on language underpinned the relationship between thought and expression. In addition, the article discusses his substantial critiques of Aristotelian philosophy, particularly scholastic rigidity, and analyzes the reasons behind these criticism in detail. His ideas were not limited to France but influenced the development of modern teaching methods across various European countries, including England and Germany. Ramus’s reforms also paved the way for the thinking pf philosophers such as Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Alexander Melville. The article examines Peter Ramus’s life, the essence of humanism, his literary activity, his stance against Aristotelian philosophy, and his innovations in method and logic within the intellectual context of the Renaissance, exploring his role in European pedagogy and the impact of his philosophical contributions.

The article examines the final stage of the political confrontations that took place in the Seljuk state at the end of the 11th and the beginning of the 12th centuries, specifically the struggle between Muhammad Tapar and Sultan Berkyaruq during the years 1099-1104. Known as the Interregnum period, this stage is characterized by internal fragmentation within the Seljuk authority and the weakening of central administration. The study highlights the emergence of the regions of Arran and Azerbaijan as key centers of conflict, emphasizing the particular role of Ganja due to its direct subordination to Seljuk rule. The article also analyzes the influence of prominent statesmen - such as Mawdud Yaquti, Mu’ayyid al-Mulk, Jawharayn, Zubayda Khatun, and Majd al-Mulk - on the course of the struggle. It further discusses how the confrontation between the sultan and the crown prince weakened the state and indirectly affected the Seljuks’ position in the Near East, particularly during the period of the First Crusade. By presenting the phases, causes, internal court intrigues, and consequences of the wars in chronological order, the article offers a comprehensive political panorama of the period.

Sheikh Baha al-Din al-Amili (1547–1621) was a prominent Islamic scholar, philosopher, engineer, and architect. He made significant contributions to both religious and secular sciences, producing works in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, jurisprudence, and architecture. During the Safavid era, he played an important role in scientific and architectural developments, being credited with the design of the Shah Abbas Mosque (Juma Mosque) and its adjacent bathhouse in Ganja, as well as the famous bathhouse in Isfahan heated through a special water channel system. His life and works remain an essential chapter in the intellectual history of the East.

The article examines certain differences between the American and the British variants and their impact on the system of the English language. The relevance of our research lies in the fact that there is a growing interest in the English language all over the world, which is directly related to the the process of globalization. The British and the American variants of English are very similar, but there are also many differences between them in terms of spelling, phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. The main objective of the research is to investigate the following differences between the British and the American variants of English: spelling, phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. Most of these differences are due to the unique historical and cultural development of these countries. The main purpose of knowing the differences between British and American English is to avoid difficulties in communication, when reading texts, watching movies or videos, and to ensure that speakers of both varieties of English fully understand each other. The article used research methods such as research and comparative analysis. In conclusion, it can be noted that although there are numerous differences between American and British English at the phonological, orthographic, grammatical, and lexical-semantic levels, these differences do not affect the system of the English language as a whole. Thus, this gives grounds to consider American and British English not two different languages, but two variants of the same language.