The distribution of global biomes has changed during Earth history in response to changes in the climate conditions. We aimed to study how climate change during the Quaternary, a period characterized by periodic transitions between glacials and interglacials and a cooling trend, influenced the expansion of biomes and biome stability. We further studied the hypothesis that biome stability can explain current patterns of plant species richness. We used machine learning and correlative models, current bioclimatic conditions, and an observation-based biome map to model the current global biome distribution. Then, we drove the model with bioclimatic conditions for the last 2.6 million years at a 1000 year temporal resolution to obtain global climate-driven biome suitability maps for this period. Our results indicate that during the study period, biomes were stable in large parts of tropical forests, deserts, boreal and temperate forests, while northern Europe, northern and central America were core areas of biome change. Biome shifts in the far North were caused by regular transitions between boreal vegetation and ice. We analyzed the relation between biome stability and current plant species richness. In tropical rainforests, species richness was positively related to biome stability, but globally the overlap between stable biomes and centers of high species richness was weak. Our modeling framework provides important insights into the stability of biomes during the Quaternary. We suggest that biome stability cannot fully explain species richness, indicating that other factors such as fire or spatial heterogeneity are important. Even though our approach is based on climate only, it is appropriate for further studies due to its general applicability to and spatial and temporal resolution and high computational performance.

Polyandry is a common reproductive behaviour in nature, and it was observed in several plant parasitic cyst nematodes. For the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida, polyandry is assumed but has never been demonstrated and quantified. Since the potato resistance used to control this nematode, i.e., the resistance conferred by GpaV from Solanum vernei, acts by masculinizing populations, and because polyandrous mating is more frequent in male-skewed populations, the level of polyandry can be expected to decrease during the nematode adaptation process to potato resistance. Aims of this study were thus to determine whether polyandry occurs in G. pallida and to explore the polyandry evolution during the adaptation process to the potato resistance. Using G. pallida lineages obtained from experimental evolution on susceptible and resistant potato cultivars, we explored and quantified the genetic evidences of multiple paternity within cysts by genotyping juveniles using microsatellite loci. Results clearly highlighted multiple paternity in G. pallida and showed that 100% of females were polyandrous, with an average of seven fathering males. Contrary to our expectations, the frequency of polyandrous females and the female mating rate with different males, estimated from the minimum number of fathers, appeared to remain stable throughout the adaptation process to a masculinizing resistance. The level of polyandry highlighted here may represent an important parameter to consider in demo-genetic models designed to compare nematode population control strategies.

Bird nest construction is shaped by both avian morphology and ecological context. In this study, we provide the first quantitative descriptions of nest structural parameters and material composition for the White-crowned Penduline Tit (Remiz coronatus) and the Black-headed Penduline Tit (R. macronyx). We also collected nest data for the Chinese Penduline Tit (R. consobrinus), allowing a descriptive comparison of nest architecture and nest materials across penduline tits. By quantifying nest structural parameters, nest mass, and material composition, we documented interspecific and interpopulation variation in several nest traits, including nest width, wall thickness, and corridor length. In the sampled nests, Chinese and White-crowned Penduline Tits used mainly shredded plant stems, plant down, and wool, with mud additionally recorded in the White-crowned Penduline Tit, whereas Black-headed Penduline Tit nests consisted primarily of shredded reed leaves and reed down. Exploratory comparisons further suggested that populations with greater mean body length tended to have larger nest inner diameters, and that species with larger mean beak size tended to use wider nest fibers. Although these comparisons are descriptive only, our study provides new comparative natural history data on nest architecture and material use in penduline tits, laying a foundation for future work on the morphological and ecological drivers of nest construction in this group.

Mobile applications with automated species identification can assist citizen scientists in undertaking plant and habitat surveys. Whilst a high level of accuracy for these applications has been reported, very little testing has been done with citizen scientists in the field. If such applications are going to be used to support biodiversity research and conservation management, they need to be sufficiently accurate and functional for their intended use. We evaluated the accuracy of the e-Surveyor mobile application, which includes automated identification for plant species and habitat prediction. We compared species lists and derived habitat associations collected by citizen scientists using the application in the field, with data recorded by expert botanists within the same survey plots. We also assessed the user experience via a questionnaire. Thirty-seven citizen scientists attended the e-Surveyor workshops and completed a questionnaire, with 51 individual plant surveys submitted across the three habitat types: calcareous grassland, neutral grassland and improved grassland. On average, experts recorded more plant species per plot compared with citizen scientists. Of the species recorded by citizen scientists on e-Surveyor that were known to be present, 71% were correctly identified to species level, though typically only 45% of all observable species in the plot according to the expert botanists were captured correctly by the citizen scientists. Eighty per cent of surveys identified the correct first broad habitat and 25% identified the correct first phytosociological community suggested by the application. Citizen scientists provided valuable input through the questionnaire, including improvements to e-Surveyor and future use cases. Most citizen scientists were able to accurately identify almost half of the observable plant species present and determine the correct broad habitat using e-Surveyor, regardless of their botanical skill level. This suggests that the application is a useful tool for supporting biological recording, whilst improving confidence, knowledge and engagement with nature.

The composition of plant functional groups is a primary factor influencing grassland ecosystem stability. Currently, it remains unclear how plant functional groups mediate the effects of external disturbances on the stability of alpine meadow ecosystems. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap via a six-year controlled experiment involving three levels of mowing intensity (unmown, moderate, and heavy) and three levels of plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) density (0, 93.3, and 186.7 individuals·ha-1). Also explored is how they affected plant community composition, biomass by plant functional groups (grasses, sedges, and forbs) and their community stability, and soil properties, either individually or jointly. It is found that both types of disturbance significantly affected the importance value (IV) of plant functional groups. The medium-density plateau pika and heavy mowing treatment reduced grass IV but increased forb IV. Both disturbances significantly affected plant functional groups' biomass and community stability, and their interaction significantly influenced the aboveground biomass (AGB) of grasses and sedges, as well as soil nutrients. Grass biomass decreased significantly following the disturbances, but forb biomass increased significantly. AGB of grasses and sedges exhibited a highly significant negative correlation with community stability. Conversely, AGB of forbs showed a positive correlation with community stability. Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that plant functional groups' biomass played a crucial mediating role in regulating the influence of plateau pika and mowing disturbances on plant community stability.

Turtles and tortoises are highly threatened yet understudied, particularly regarding reproductive traits and early life stages. In long-lived species, reliance on adult census data can mask reproductive failure for decades before population declines become apparent. This knowledge gap is evident in the Aldabra giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea), despite its widespread use in conservation translocations and ecosystem restoration. We present preliminary data on fertilisation success, early embryo survival and hatching success, across one natural and five translocated populations in the Seychelles. Of 317 eggs from 24 clutches, only 16% successfully hatched. Most failed eggs (97%) were undeveloped. Using recently developed microscopic methods to assess egg fertility, we provide the first population-level comparisons of fertilisation and hatching outcomes for this species. Although sample sizes are limited, our results indicate low and variable hatching success, driven primarily by embryo mortality. Complete clutch failure was common (67%), and embryo mortality was prevalent even among clutches that had some degree of hatching success. Hatching rates were markedly reduced in translocated populations (0%-26%) compared to a natural Aldabra Atoll population (46%) and all fell below historical estimates from ~50 years ago (60%-80%). We also found a negative association between hatching success and a Human Modification Index, although interpretation of this result should be cautious considering the small sample size. These findings provide the first reproductive success data for translocated Aldabra giant tortoise populations and the first for the species in the last five decades. We argue that incorporating productivity metrics into monitoring frameworks is essential to improve vulnerability predictions and inform effective conservation management.

A positive relationship between metabolic rate and the rate of mutation accumulation is regarded as a core prediction of the metabolic theory of ecology; however, empirical support for this relationship remains limited. One indirect but rigorous approach to testing this hypothesis is to analyze the transition-transversion bias across increasing levels of genetic divergence. This approach allows comparison of evolutionary substitution patterns among taxonomic groups that differ in metabolic rate, which can be inferred from body size and species-specific body temperature. Because transitions largely arise from spontaneous molecular processes while transversions are more strongly associated with oxidative DNA damage. These two mutation types exhibit distinct origins and mutational spectra, comparison of which will allow us to estimate the rate of mutation caused by oxidative DNA damage in taxonomic groups with different metabolic rates. The order Cypriniformes represents an excellent model system for such analyses because it includes both small- and large-bodied lineages distributed across tropical and temperate climatic zones. To identify patterns of evolutionary transition-transversion bias in the mitochondrial CYTB gene among cypriniform families and subfamilies differing in climatic affiliation and body size Families and subfamilies inhabiting temperate regions exhibit increasing transition frequencies and decreasing transversion frequencies with increasing genetic divergence, resulting in a pronounced transition-transversion bias. In contrast, tropical taxa showed elevated transversion frequencies and a substantially weaker bias. Taxa distributed across both climatic zones displayed intermediate characteristics. Large-bodied fishes exhibited higher transition frequencies and lower transversion frequencies than small-bodied taxa, resulting in a stronger transition-transversion bias. The greatest contrast was observed between small-bodied tropical taxa and large-bodied temperate taxa. The accelerated accumulation of transversions relative to transitions in taxa with higher metabolic intensity-small-bodied fishes and tropical lineages-provides direct evidence for a positive relationship between metabolic rate and the rate of mutational processes, as well as a negative association between body size and mutation rate. Elevated transversion frequencies in tropical cypriniforms additionally support the evolutionary rate hypothesis, according to which warm and climatically stable environments promote accelerated molecular evolution.

Subalpine meadow ecosystems have undergone widespread shrubification over the past century due to climate change and anthropogenic activities, yet the impacts on soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization and temperature sensitivity (Q10) remain unclear. We carried out laboratory incubation experiments with soils from native subalpine meadows and shrub-encroached areas on Luliang Mountain. Soil properties, organic carbon fractions, and microbial communities were analyzed to assess their roles in SOC mineralization and Q10. The results showed that shrubification acidified soils, increased nutrients, reduced labile carbon (dissolved organic carbon, DOC), and elevated stable carbon (mineral-associated organic carbon, MAOC). It raised microbial α-diversity but reduced network complexity, with fungi responding more strongly. SOC mineralization rates decreased across depths due to lower pH, higher stable carbon, and disrupted microbial interactions. Total mineralization and Q10 in surface soil (0-5 cm) were notably reduced. Structural equation modeling indicated that in meadows, pH and nutrients co-regulated mineralization, while under shrubification, nutrients dominated, altering microbial networks (weakening Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota, Acidobacteriota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota interactions) to suppress SOC mineralization. These findings highlight that shrubification reshapes the key mechanisms of carbon mineralization, with soil nutrients playing a complex regulatory role in carbon dynamics. Our results from this typical subalpine region provide insights for predicting SOC mineralization feedbacks to climate change and understanding shrubification impacts on regional carbon balance.

The primary trait of invasive plant species is their enhanced competitive ability compared to native flora. Consequently, in ecosystems they invade, native species diversity often declines. However, some native plants may allocate resources to developing traits that support their coexistence with invasive species. We conducted an observational experiment to assess how the functional traits of native plants are influenced by the invasion of Lupinus polyphyllus, how the Competition-Stress-Ruderal (CSR) strategies of native species shift during this process, as well as whether environmental factors modify these relations. We selected eight species (four herbs and four grasses) commonly found in the grasslands of the Sudety Mountains (Poland). Plants and soil were sampled from grasslands dominated by L. polyphyllus (> 50% cover) and from adjacent patches free of invasive plants. We measured plant height, leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf dry matter content (LDMC). Subsequently, we evaluated each species' allocation to a particular life strategy using the CSR framework. Our findings show that native grassland species growing alongside L. polyphyllus tend to be taller, have larger leaves, exhibit higher SLA, and have lower LDMC compared to those in noninvaded areas. Simultaneously, L. polyphyllus presence is associated with reduced impacts of K and moisture on herbs' functional traits; C, N, C/N, and heat exposure on grasses' functional traits; as well as low pH and clay content on both groups' functional traits. These shifts in leaf traits among plants interacting with the invader suggest a reduced investment in stress-tolerance strategies, accompanied by increased investment in competitive or ruderal strategies.

Monitoring wildlife in remote areas is vital for biodiversity research, yet infrared-triggered cameras often produce large numbers of false or empty images due to environmental interference, causing data overload and power waste. To address this, this manuscript proposes WS-YOLO, a lightweight edge-optimized wildlife detection model based on improved YOLOv11n, which aims to integrate false-trigger filtering and accurate animal detection in a single model for field applications. Specifically, the model introduces three key enhancements: it adopts a Wavelet Convolution (WTConv) module to capture multi-scale and frequency-aware features, boosting robustness to complex backgrounds and small-target detection accuracy; meanwhile, a Spatial-Channel Synergistic Attention (SCSA) mechanism is incorporated to enhance spatial localization and channel-wise semantic encoding, enabling the model to focus on salient regions of wildlife; additionally, a SlideLoss function is designed to prioritize training on boundary cases, improving the handling of ambiguous detection instances. Experiments on four wildlife datasets demonstrate that WS-YOLO achieves excellent mAP@0.50 performance: 93.0% on African Wildlife, 98.0% on Amur Tiger, 98.5% on the NTLNP infrared dataset, and 79.4% on PASCAL VOC, confirming its robustness across diverse scenarios. Deployment on a Jetson Nano further validates its feasibility for real-time, energy-efficient use in the field. WS-YOLO enables accurate animal recognition and classification directly at edge devices, significantly reducing communication load and enhancing monitoring efficiency.