Urbanisation is rapidly transforming landscapes across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with profound implications for biodiversity, carbon storage, and ecosystem service provision. Despite growing recognition of urban green spaces as providing nature-based solutions, empirical evidence in SSA remains fragmented and unevenly distributed. This review synthesises 38 studies (30 journal articles and 8 grey literature sources) to critically examine linkages between urbanisation, tree species diversity, carbon stocks, and ecosystem services in SSA cities. Results reveal strong thematic silos: 50% of studies focused on single components, while only 10.5% simultaneously addressed urbanisation, biodiversity, carbon dynamics, and ecosystem services respectively. Urban expansion is consistently associated with vegetation loss and ecological simplification, with tree communities dominated by a few exotic species and native diversity increasingly marginalised. Urban carbon stocks are systematically underestimated due to incomplete biomass inventories and limited inclusion of data from soils and belowground carbon pools. Ecosystem service assessments largely emphasise provisioning benefits, with regulating and cultural services receiving minimal quantitative attention. Social dimensions are weakly integrated, with limited incorporation of community perceptions and indigenous knowledge. Compared with global urban ecology, SSA research lags significantly in interdisciplinary integration, constraining evidence-based planning and climate-responsive urban development. Key gaps include insufficient linkage between land-use change and ecological functions, limited application of functional diversity metrics, inconsistent carbon accounting approaches, and weak science policy interfaces. The review highlights the urgent need for integrated urban ecology frameworks that combine spatial analysis, biodiversity assessment, carbon accounting, ecosystem service valuation, and community participatory approaches. Strengthening such integration is essential for advancing nature-based solutions, enhancing climate resilience, and supporting sustainable urban development in Sub-Saharan Africa.

There is an increasing climate change disaster impacting food security and livelihoods in Nakuru County, Kenya. Although several adaptation strategies can be implemented to adapt to unpredictable rainfall, drought, and intense weather, very little is documented about their adoption and household choices. This research paper set out to evaluate the kind of adaptation strategies embraced by households and how they contribute towards resilience and livelihood sustenance in Nakuru County. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design where a multi-stage sampling technique was adopted to sample 156 respondents. Semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, observations, and key informant interviews were used to collect data, which were analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings indicated that the most popular strategies included drought-resistant crops 97 (62.2%), water management 90 (57.8%), urban forestry 87, (55.6%), and improving infrastructure resilience 81 (52.2%). Conversely, the least adopted were the revision of land use plans 62 (40.0%), disaster risk reduction 69 (44.4%), early warning systems 69 (44.4%), and promoting regenerative agriculture 73 (46.7%), which show the gaps of institutional and policy-based interventions. The research concludes that, although households are focusing on viable, household-level adjustments, formal and structural adjustments are underexploited. To make communities more resilient, the government needs to offer specific training and technical assistance and implement climate-sensitive policies in order to take institutional and structural adaptation measures

Over the years, human impact on the environment has triggered changes in water quality. This has been caused by point and non-point sources of pollution. This study investigated the effects of human activities on the water quality of Manza Stream in Machakos Municipality, Kenya. Manza Stream is one of the streams that pour its waters into the Maruba Dam. Samples were collected in triplicate at four selected sites along the watercourse bi-weekly for one and a half months. The water samples were tested and analysed in the laboratory for bacterial count; E-coli and Total coliforms, and eight physicochemical water parameters. The parameters measured onsite were: temperature and dissolved oxygen, and in the laboratory: turbidity, electrical conductivity, pH, nitrates, nitrites and sulphates. One-way Analysis of Variance and Post Hoc Tukey test were used for data analysis to test the significance difference (p=0.05) and to separate mean values of the different parameters measured at different sampling sites, respectively. Electrical Conductivity (64.20 to 974µs/cm), Nitrates (0.50 to 2.00mg/l), Sulphates (0.89 to 14.56mg/l), Nitrites (0.0009 to 0.08mg/l), Dissolved Oxygen (1.40 to 4.70mg/l), and pH (6.55 to 7.65) were found to be within the WHO drinking water standards. Temperature, specifically at Maruba Dam (site four) (26.210C), E-Coli (0 to 53.33MPN/ml), and Total Coliform (1472.22 to 1777.78MPN/100ml) exceeded the WHO limits. The findings from this research benefit the water sector in educating the public on ways to carry out their activities sustainably, without affecting the water quality of the stream and the importance of protecting the catchment.

Environmental education is increasingly expected to be integrated across learning systems, yet many in-service teacher trainees in low-resource contexts have limited access to structured, locally relevant digital materials that support practical classroom implementation. Lightweight, easily maintainable platforms such as Google Sites may offer a feasible alternative to more complex learning management systems, but evidence on their usability and uptake for environmental education remains limited. This study applies the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine the usability and perceived usefulness of the EnviroEd Learning Hub, a Google Sites-based platform for teaching Environmental Education (EE) in a Ugandan teacher training institute. By using systematic sampling, a sample of 50 in-service Diploma in Education Primary (DEP) students was selected to evaluate the prototype and the refined version of the platform following the Design-Based Research design. The findings indicate that on the perceived Ease of Use, 86% of students rated the platform as easy or very easy to navigate, with a mean score of 4.2 (SD = 0.82). On the perceived usefulness, the refined platform received a rating mean score of 4.38 out of 5, from 4.23 during prototype evaluation, with 86% of respondents describing it as either very good or excellent. Overall, the study demonstrates the promise of Google Sites as a practical platform for environmental education in teacher training contexts and provides actionable recommendations for strengthening user experience, engagement, and scalability. These insights can inform the design of low-cost digital learnng hubs that support teacher capacity development for environmental sustainability education in similar settings

The Grey Crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum), listed as Endangered, depends on wetlands and adjacent farmlands for feeding, nesting, and roosting. Human activities, particularly agriculture, can affect food availability and habitat quality, while community attitudes strongly influence conservation outcomes. Understanding local knowledge of crane diets and perceptions toward their protection is therefore vital for effective management. This study explored how residents of Uasin Gishu County, Kenya, understand Grey Crowned Crane diets and how their attitudes shape conservation efforts. Using a cross-sectional mixed-methods design, 324 households across six sub-counties bordering wetlands were sampled, with 316 completing questionnaires (97.5% response rate). Data captured community knowledge of crane diets, attitudes, cultural beliefs, and conservation practices, supplemented by field observations of crane foraging. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests, while qualitative responses were examined thematically. Results indicated that 78.4% of respondents were aware of crane diets, commonly identifying wheat (39.1%) and maize (25.4%) as key foods. Knowledge of crane diet was significantly associated with respondents’ profiles (χ² = 31.36, df = 1, p < 0.001). Crop predation was widely reported, particularly in cereals and was statistically significant (χ² = 31.36, df = 1, p < 0.001). Community perceptions were mixed: 34.5% considered cranes harmful to crops, 19.2% recognized their ecological benefits, and 15.1% attributed cultural significance (χ² = 56.38, df = 6, p < 0.001). Despite occasional conflicts, 90.4% supported conservation efforts, including wetland protection (40.4%), avoiding harm to cranes (13.1%) and promoting awareness (9.8%), with differences in practices also statistically significant (χ² = 84.80, df = 6, p < 0.001). The findings show that local communities possess strong knowledge of crane feeding behaviour and generally positive attitudes toward their protection. Crop damage, though a source of conflict, does not prevent active engagement in conservation. Cultural values and ecological awareness offer a strong foundation for participatory conservation. It is recommended that strategies integrate local knowledge and traditions, promote non-lethal crop protection, restore critical wetlands, establish buffer zones and support community-led initiatives to ensure sustainable coexistence between Grey Crowned Cranes and agricultural livelihoods.

Wetlands provide a wide range of ecosystem functions and services. However, anthropogenic activities in wetlands have led to changes in biophysical attributes that are rarely investigated, especially in the tropical inland valley wetlands (IVWs), likely due to their small sizes. The major objective of the study was to assess the effects of anthropogenic activities on Nalwekomba IVW (Uganda) biophysical features. This was achieved through the use of scores for impacts of three categories of human disturbances at 13 sites to obtain stress index scores and relative disturbance levels, in addition to measured environmental variables. Agriculture (denoted as AD) and grazing (denoted as GD) disturbances were the major contributing factors at 76.9% and 23.1%, respectively, of the sites. At > 10% impact rating, the relative disturbance level was higher for ADs in 39%, other human disturbances (31%), and least for GDs in 15.4% of the site. At ≥5% to < 10% impact rating, relative disturbance was high for GDs in 61.5% of the sites, ADs and ODs in 46% and 23% of the sites, respectively. Sites impacted by grazing and other human activities were significantly different (Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test, p<0.005). Mean values for surface-water- depth of 0.29±0.10m; DO-2.56 ± 1.12 mg/l; pH- 7.26±0.26 and Temperature-26.99± 4.81℃ did not reflect effects on water quality. The higher electro-conductivity values of 932.79± 300.53µS/cm and total dissolved solids-467.75± 149.70 mg/l may signify a high gradient of impact. Though the impact scores reveal low anthropogenic wetland disturbance (observed at 53.8% of the sites), strategic management is recommended to lessen the modification and ensure environmental integrity of the Nalwekomba inland valley wetland.

Located in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (KBNP) is now becoming an epicentre of tension between the conservation authorities and the local population, particularly the indigenous Pygmy peoples. This study examines the dialectic between the indigenous Pygmy people's right to land and the conservation requirements of the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (KBNP), as a protected heritage site. This research adopts an inductive approach based on documentation, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. The results indicate that the current protected area management model should evolve towards participatory governance, recognising the customary and traditional rights of local populations. The exclusion of local people from the decision-making process has led to a lack of interest in conservation, and even to social implosion. Conditions of access to basic social services remain inequitable, accentuating the marginalisation of these groups. This standard recognises their right to dignity, physical integrity and freedom, while prohibiting all forms of discrimination. In addition, the Forestry Code (article 44) guarantees the maintenance of the use rights of local populations in forest concessions, except for agriculture. In practice, however, these provisions are circumvented or not applied in the context of the KBNP. The principle of co-management, promoted by the ICCN since its 2012 strategy, remains theoretical, with no concrete memorandum of understanding with the indigenous people. The sacred nature of Batwa land, combined with the need for dignified survival, means that the Congolese state has an obligation to guarantee secure access to forest resources, while respecting legal and customary pluralism.

This study assesses the potential of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) to improve water resource management in Rwanda’s Sebeya catchment, where environmental degradation persists, and farmer awareness of PES remains low (4.57%). A mixed-methods approach combined biophysical modelling and socio-economic analysis. The InVEST model was used to quantify key ecosystem services - water yield and sediment retention, while primary data were collected through structured surveys with 391 household farmers and interviews with water-dependent enterprises. Findings show that PES-supported land management enhances ecosystem health and watershed functions, with improved sediment retention and water yield under restoration scenarios. Socio-economic results indicate that PES promotes environmental awareness, strengthens decision-making related to forest landscape restoration, and encourages adoption of sustainable practices through financial incentives. A strong positive correlation (r = 0.673, p < 0.001) was identified between PES implementation and effective water management outcomes. Stakeholders emphasised the importance of capacity building and cross-sector collaboration for successful PES integration. The study demonstrates PES as a viable tool for integrated watershed management, linking ecosystem restoration with livelihood improvement and informing policy for sustainable water governance

Climate change poses a threat to food production in the world and decreases the viability of smallholder dairy farming in Nakuru County. The potential of dairy farming in Nakuru County is high, but few farmers apply climate-smart technologies. This reduces the production of milk and the ability of farmers to withstand climate change. There is limited empirical evidence on the climate-smart technologies among smallholder dairy farmers in the area. This paper, therefore, assessed (i) institutional characteristics of smallholder dairy farmers; and (ii) climate-smart technologies adopted by smallholder dairy farmers in Njoro Sub-County, Nakuru County, to guide targeted, context-specific evidence to inform policy and programmes that increase productivity as well as environmental conservation. A cross-sectional survey design was applied, with a multi-stage sampling method selecting 110 respondents. Data was collected through semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, observations, and key informant interviews and analysed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that farmers adopted various climate-smart technologies. Rainwater harvesting was embraced by (98.18%) of the respondents, followed by improved fodder (92.73%) and agroforestry (89.09%). Additional practises were improved livestock breeds (85.45%) and zero grazing (53.64%), silage and hay making (45.45%). Biogas (10.91%) and solar energy (8.18%) were the least adopted technologies. The research concludes that the most widely adopted technologies are low-cost and readily available. The research recommends strengthening extension and training services through increased staffing at the Ward level and regular farm visits. It also proposes additional financial support networks, including subsidies and favourable credit, to reduce initial investment costs.