Artificial intelligence is among the most rapidly developing branches of technology. It has proven to be a helpful tool in various fields, including medicine. Significant advances in the development of new language models prompt an evaluation of their effectiveness across various areas of medicine, including anatomy. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of artificial intelligence in solving theoretical anatomy exams designed for medical students. The study utilized 555 multiple-choice questions (150 in Polish and 405 in English) sourced from past anatomy exams for the medical program. The models tested included: ChatGPT-4o mini, ChatGPT-4o, DeepSeek, Copilot, Gemini, and two Polish models: Bielik and PLLum. Each question was asked only once. For analysis purposes, the questions were categorized by type and by the anatomical structure they addressed. Out of 555 questions, ChatGPT-4o mini answered 394 correctly (71%), ChatGPT-4o - 461 (83.1%), DeepSeek - 427 (76.9%), Copilot - 442 (79.6%), Gemini - 439 (78.8%), Bielik - 166 (29.9%), and PLLum - 222 (40.0%). The language models performed poorest on multiple-answer questions (37.6%) and best on questions concerning the function of a given organ (75%). Most of the tested language models are capable of independently passing the exam, which should serve as a warning to teaching staff supervising students during exams and assessments. Properly formulated questions can currently hinder students relying on artificial intelligence from passing, but ongoing AI advancements may result in even higher pass rates in the future.

Anatomical education and research are built on the generosity of individuals who donate their bodies to advance science. However, the terminology traditionally used to describe these individuals-"specimens," "cadavers," or "cadaveric specimens"-risks objectifying the donor and obscuring their humanity. This paper examines the historical roots of depersonalized language, its persistence in contemporary research, and the ethical implications of its continuing use. Drawing on comparisons with the organ donation and transplantation literature and on calls within anatomy for reforming terminology, we propose humanizing alternatives such as "body donor," "donor body," or "anatomical donor." The discussion emphasizes how terminology influences pedagogy, professional culture, and public trust in body donation programs. By embracing more respectful language, anatomists, surgeons, physicians, and dentists can better honor the gift of body donation and highlight the humanity of those who continue to teach us even after death, for example, Hic locus est ubi mors gaudet succurrere vitae.

Facial transplantation is a division of reconstructive surgery which aims to improve the function and appearance of a face that has endured severe disfigurement. Currently, the face transplant procedure uses allogenic tissue, harvested from a brain-dead donor, to replace damaged facial components. To date, 50 face transplants have been performed worldwide. Survival and functional success of the transplant is dependent on multiple factors; however, effective neurovascular recovery of the graft is arguably the most important. An effective vasculature system is essential to avoid necrosis and death of the transplanted tissue, and an effective nervous system is required for the graft to regain function. This comprehensive review examines and evaluates recommendations found in different studies to try and determine techniques for achieving optimal neurovascular graft outcomes. Sensory recovery of the graft occurs spontaneously through natural regeneration of the trigeminal nerve's cutaneous branches. Motor recovery, however, relies on precise coaptation of donor and recipient nerves using microsurgical sutures, reinforced by fibrin glue. Additional considerations, including parotid gland exclusion and use of a nerve graft, can further improve outcomes. Pre-operative vascular assessment of both the donor and recipient is another crucial consideration. Computed tomography angiography, magnetic resonance angiography, and digital subtraction angiography can be used to plan and enable successful end-to-end or end-to-side anastomosis of vessels. If applied in future facial transplantation procedures, these techniques could enhance recovery, improve functional outcomes, and lead to a greater patient quality of life.

Innovations in histology and education are widespread. However, the field currently lacks a systematic analysis of trends. Therefore, this study employed bibliometric methods to systematically review research on histology and education, filling a gap in the field and providing a reference for further studies. We retrieved articles related to histology and education from 1900 to 2024 from the Science Citation Index-Expanded of the Web of Science Core Collection. Data on publication trends, countries, leading institutions, prolific authors, influential journals, co-cited references, and popular keywords were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2019, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer. The analysis revealed that a total of 3004 research papers and reviews related to histology and education were published globally (1936-2024). The United States emerged as the core research power in this field. Hortsch, Michael was identified as the most prolific author. The journal "Anatomical Sciences Education" published the highest number of articles. Notably, the current hot topic is artificial intelligence technology. This research provides a comprehensive knowledge map of histology and education. As a current hot technology, artificial intelligence will see further global research in this field focus on how to more organically integrate AI technology into histology education in the future.

In recent decades, molecular biology and omics technologies have profoundly reshaped biomedical research, with genomics, proteomics, and other high-throughput approaches dominating scientific agendas and funding priorities. Within this molecular paradigm, however, the anatomical sciences face an epistemic and institutional tension: morphology, historically grounded in the study of form, structure, and spatial relationships, is increasingly framed as merely descriptive or obsolete. This Viewpoint moves beyond the familiar narrative of a "decline of anatomy" to argue for its strategic reinvention as a core scientific method. Anatomy is not simply a body of knowledge but a way of seeing and reasoning that remains essential for understanding biological systems. Morphological thinking-linking structure to function insitu-provides integrative insights that cannot be derived from molecular data alone. Based on historical perspectives, epistemology, and recent advances in imaging and integrative methodologies, we show how anatomy continues to drive hypothesis generation, biomedical innovation, and clinical decision-making. Using the Italian academic system as a case study, we highlight the growing institutional disconnect between anatomical teaching and morphologically grounded research, exacerbated by metric-driven evaluation frameworks. Finally, we propose a roadmap for embedding morphology within emerging platforms such as spatial biology, high-resolution imaging, and AI-assisted analysis, reclaiming anatomy as a methodological compass for navigating biological complexity and clinical translation.

A retropharyngeal internal carotid artery (RP-ICA) is a cervical ICA variant that courses adjacent to or abuts the pharyngeal wall, reducing the safety margin during procedures such as nasotracheal intubation and transoral surgery. Although described for over a century, relatively few cohort studies have investigated its prevalence, and no pooled estimate has been established. Following PRISMA guidelines, we systematically searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (as of August 2025) for adult imaging cohorts that reported both the numerator (RP-ICA cases) and the denominator. Two reviewers independently performed study screening and data extraction. Exclusion criteria included non-ICA vascular variants, studies of low quality, those written in languages other than English, and those with unavailable full text. The risk of bias was assessed using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Study-specific proportions were logit-transformed and pooled using a DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Of 743 records identified, 595 titles/abstracts were screened and 89 full texts assessed; 47 studies were included qualitatively, and five imaging cohorts were meta-analyzed. Across these cohorts, 150 RP-ICA cases were identified among 10,066 adults. Prevalence in individual studies ranged from 0.07% to 7.97%. The pooled prevalence was 1.51% (95% CI, 0.53%-4.21%), with substantial heterogeneity. The oropharynx was the most frequent site of RP-ICA. Several reports described carotid arteries within a few millimeters of the pharyngeal mucosa or in direct contact, and positional changes were observed on serial imaging. The qualitative synthesis detailed pharyngeal level, laterality, and carotid-pharyngeal distances. Original imaging evidence of cases involving multiple RP-ICAs and additional carotid segments was further reported. RP-ICA is an uncommon but clinically significant vascular variant. Standardized reporting of minimum carotid-pharyngeal distance, pharyngeal level, laterality, and core imaging parameters would enhance comparability across studies and facilitate risk communication in otolaryngology, anesthesia, dentistry, vascular surgery, and spine surgery.

The tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii (LHBT) contributes to shoulder joint stability, but can become a source of shoulder pain because of trauma or degeneration. Injection of local anesthetics into the biceps sheath (BS) is an effective treatment for managing anterior shoulder pain and is widely performed clinically; however, the accuracy of unguided injections remains low. This study aimed to clarify the anatomical characteristics of the BS and identify the optimal injection site to improve the accuracy and safety of unguided anterior shoulder injections. Eight 5% formalin-fixed cadavers (16 shoulders) and 1 Thiel-embalmed cadaver were examined at Kurume University School of Medicine. Morphological measurements and histological evaluations were performed on cadaveric shoulders. In addition, ultrasound examinations were performed on 28 shoulders from 14 healthy adults. Vascular distribution around the BS was evaluated using latex injection in the Thiel-embalmed cadaver. The mean BS length in cadavers was 36.2 ± 8.4 mm, and the mean width was 9.4 ± 1.2 mm; these were not significantly different than those in live subjects. Macroscopic observations confirmed continuity between the BS and the shoulder joint capsule. The anterior circumflex humeral artery ran along the lateral aspect of the LHBT, while the transverse humeral ligament was located approximately 23 mm proximal to the BS. The BS is continuous with the joint capsule, and injections into the BS allow intra-articular delivery of medication. The optimal injection site is approximately 1.5 transverse fingerbreadths distal to the superomedial edge of the greater tubercle and medial to the LHBT. This location minimizes the risk of injuring the anterior circumflex humeral artery and the extended tendon of the subscapularis muscle while improving the accuracy of needle placement.

Photogrammetry has emerged as a powerful tool in medical education, offering precise and cost-effective 3D anatomical models that enhance spatial learning and accessibility. This systematic review synthesizes evidence from forty-eight (48) peer-reviewed studies (2000-2025) to evaluate photogrammetry's applications, technical workflows, and educational outcomes in anatomy and surgical training. Findings demonstrate its effectiveness across training levels, with high learner satisfaction (e.g., 96.4% preference over traditional methods) and sub-millimeter accuracy in rendering complex structures like neuroanatomy and musculoskeletal systems. Photogrammetry's adaptability for remote learning and specimen preservation addresses critical gaps in resource-limited settings. However, challenges persist, including the lack of tactile feedback and difficulties in visualizing deep anatomical relationships. Future directions should focus on integrating artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted processing, hybrid digital-physical models, and immersive technologies like virtual reality (VR)/augmented reality (AR) to bridge these gaps. By balancing innovation with evidence-based implementation, photogrammetry can further solidify its role as a transformative adjunct in modern medical curricula.

Myofascial pain syndrome (MFPS) causes chronic shoulder pain. Supraspinatus and infraspinatus, rotator cuff muscles innervated by the suprascapular nerve, are commonly affected. Intramuscular botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injections near motor points (i.e., visible nerve branch entry sites used as a proxy for motor endplates) are an effective treatment for such pain. However, current techniques limit accessibility. This study aimed to develop a patient-specific, landmark-guided technique for BoNT delivery into supraspinatus and infraspinatus using scapular dimensions. Ten pairs of cadaveric shoulders (n = 20) were dissected to identify supraspinatus and infraspinatus motor points. Distances from scapular landmarks to these motor points were measured in two axes. These distances were correlated with scapular dimensions (height, spine length, width) using linear regression. Patient-specific predictive formulae were derived. For validation, landmark-guided methylene blue dye injections were performed on four additional shoulders using calculated coordinates. For supraspinatus, motor points were predicted using deltoid tubercle and root of the scapular spine (r = 0.58-0.64, p = 0.0016-0.021). For infraspinatus, root of the scapular spine and lateral acromion were used (r = 0.46-0.60, p = 0.0054-0.0500). In all validation specimens, injected dye accurately reached the motor points. This study provides a validated, patient-specific, landmark-guided technique for BoNT delivery into the rotator cuff, offering an approach for accessible analgesia.

Understanding the anatomy of the medial canthal tendon (MCT) is essential for accurate facial reconstruction and orbital surgery. This study analyzed the morphometry and anatomical position of the MCT in 109 orbits from 55 Thiel-embalmed Scottish cadavers (27 males, 28 females; mean age at time of death 84.79 years). Measurements included bone-to-tendon, soft tissue, and bone-to-bone distances, with transverse lines established using a ruler at the superior and inferior orbital margins. Vertical distances from these lines to the MCT were recorded, alongside MCT length, width, and orbital height and width. A previously undocumented decussation pattern was observed in 7% of cadavers, in which the superior and inferior bands of the MCT crossed over the frontal process of the maxilla. The remaining specimens exhibited a single-band configuration. Statistically significant sex-based differences were found in four of seven parameters: the distance between the inferior orbital margin and MCT (p < 0.001), orbital height (p < 0.01), orbital width (p < 0.01), and frontonasal suture to MCT distance (p < 0.02). MCT length and width showed no sex differences. These findings establish the dacryon as a reliable landmark for MCT positioning and highlight the importance of population-specific anatomical data in surgical and forensic applications. This study offers novel insights into MCT morphology within a Scottish population, reinforcing the relevance of precise morphometric data for clinical accuracy.