Abstract This study investigates the use of figures of speech by individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a mental health condition subsequent to a traumatic event. A large body of literature has addressed the issue of trauma-related metaphors, but other figures of speech have not been investigated. Our goal is to analyze these figures of speech in relation to PTSD and to assess the extent to which such linguistic markers can contribute to post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis. A total of 136 individuals (49.2 per cent with PTSD) among the survivors of the 2015 Paris attacks were interviewed. The different figures of speech they used were analyzed. Our results show that unlike most studies focusing only on metaphors, other figures of speech are also relevant. Second, we found associations between metaphors, similes, and irony and the criterion “avoidance” as well as between the semantic features of metaphors and similes and symptoms. Finally, unlike most studies addressing the use of metaphors for therapeutic purposes, we suggest that figures of speech could be a relevant contributor to post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis.

Abstract Extramural English (EE), referring to English-mediated leisure activities, has become a core part of English learning in many contexts. This prompts the need to explore how informal learning can best interact with English language teaching (ELT). To investigate possible ways of linking EE and ELT, we asked secondary school teachers in Austria, Finland, France, and Sweden in a survey to illustrate an activity they would do with students making extensive use of EE. We recruited teachers through convenience sampling and received responses from 239 teachers. Swedish teachers most frequently illustrated activities, followed by Austrian, Finnish, and French teachers. Austrian and French teachers mostly referred to activities based on authentic (i.e. non-pedagogic) material. Contrarily, Finnish and Swedish teachers more often illustrated activities raising learners’ awareness of register differences. The findings point to possible contextual variation in how EE is considered in instruction, potentially influenced by political and sociocultural factors, such as learners’ average EE use and dominant instructional priorities. The findings can inform stakeholders seeking to support teachers in effectively connecting classroom instruction with learners’ EE.

Abstract Understanding what makes second language (L2) listening comprehension difficult is crucial for advancing language learning and assessment. In L2 listening assessment, a key challenge is developing items with targeted difficulty levels. This difficulty can be influenced by textual and acoustic features from different item segments (i.e. stimuli, stems, and options) embedded in a multi-layered structure, along with task-related features. This study explores a feature-based machine learning (ML) approach to predicting difficulty of multiple-choice listening items on a local language proficiency test. We extracted construct-relevant textual and acoustic features from item segments across five dimensions: lexical complexity, syntactic complexity, fluency, pronunciation, and similarities among item segments. Incorporating these features, we compared traditional and mixed-effects ML models for predictive accuracy and interpretability. The best-performing model—a mixed-effects Ridge model with twenty-three features—achieved high accuracy (R2 = 0.860) and showed meaningful feature-difficulty relationships. This study presents methodological innovations for item difficulty modeling and offers practical implications for human- and machine-mediated item development. It also demonstrates potential of incorporating computational linguistics and ML in enhancing L2 listening assessment.

Abstract This study examines the acquisition of Italian lexical stress by adult L2 learners. L1 Italian speakers and beginner L2 Italian speakers were recorded reading aloud trisyllabic Italian words, e.g. COdice with antepenultimate syllable stress (“code”), moMENto with penultimate syllable stress (“moment”). We analyzed four acoustic-phonetic cues: duration, fundamental frequency (pitch is the perceptual correlate), amplitude, and spectral tilt (a measure of energy change over frequencies). We corroborated previous findings: L1 speakers used all four cues to differentiate between antepenultimate (strong-weak-weak) and penultimate (weak-strong-weak) stressed words. We found evidence of L2 speakers producing inconsistent patterns for all four cues. We then played these L1 and L2 recordings for L1 Italian speakers (N = 50) and asked them to rate the utterances using a visual analog scale (VAS). As expected, the L1 speech was rated higher (more fluent stress) than the L2 speech (less fluent stress). We modeled how the acoustic cues predicted VAS responses. Our findings highlight the roles of duration and pitch for L2 learners. We conclude with implications for learners and teachers of Italian.