Aim: The aim is to provide an economic analysis of the extent to which the area size and economic size of small farms below 5 ha helped productivity development for survival in the EU-10 after joining the EU (period 2005‒2016). Methods: Based on Eurostat data, a special database was established. The indices approach was used to analyze productivity development. Dynamics of capacity variables (number, utilized agricultural area, and standard output) and productivity indicators (average farm size, area productivity, and total productivity) were calculated. The distance of the EU-10 averages from the EU-15 was measured. Ten specialist farm types were observed in the following categories: below 2 ha, 2.0‒4.9 ha, below 5 ha, below 2,000 EUR, below 2 ha and 2,000 EUR, and below 5 ha and below 2,000 EUR. Results: EU-10: a) The decline in the number of very small specialist farms was below the average; b) The dynamics of both area and total productivity of specialist farms exceeded EU-15 averages; c) In subsistence farms, the economicsize was more supportive of increasing productivity, while in semi-subsistence farms, the area size was more supportive of increasing productivity; d) Small specialist semi-subsistence farms with an output below 2,000 EUR contributed more to convergence; e) The gap of specialist subsistence farms below 2,000 EUR between the EU-10 and EU-15, both in total and area productivity, increased. Conclusions: Farms below 5 ha in the EU-10 increased productivity, more so in specialist semi-subsistence farms, supportingconvergence. Poland has achieved outstanding growth in convergence related to small specialist farms, both in terms of area and economic size. The dynamics of indicators for specialist semi-subsistence farms contributed to convergence in Poland, Hungary, and Romania.

Aim: The purpose of this study is to analyze the role of civic education classes as a tool supporting the development of local civic participation among primary and secondary school students in Kraków. The work aims to understand why young people show low interest in participating in local participatory mechanisms and to assess the effectiveness of civics education in shaping pro-social attitudes and social engagement. Methods: The research analysis is based on qualitative and quantitative research conducted among students from Kraków schools. Observations of civics classes, group interviews, and case studies on youth participation in participatory budgeting and public consultations were used. A literature review on civic education and youth participation was also conducted. Results: Research has shown that, despite the growing availability and diversity of participation forms, youth interest in participatingin local mechanisms remains low. Civics classes have a positive impact on students’ civic awareness, but they do not always translate into genuine engagement in local community life. Factors that demotivate young people include a lack of information, a sense of ineffectiveness, and limited opportunities to actually influence decisions. Conclusions: Civic education in the form of civic classes is an important element in shaping pro-social attitudes and developing civic awareness among young people. However, to effectively increase their participation in local initiatives, it is essential to simultaneously create authentic and accessible spaces for action and strengthen their sense of influence on the surrounding reality. Further research and innovative teaching approaches are necessary to combine theory with practice and motivate young citizens.

Aim: This study reassesses the nature of international trade costs by examining both conventional barriers (e.g., tariffs, transportation costs) and unconventional ones (e.g., cultural, institutional, and conflict-related frictions). Special attention is given to conceptualizing interstate soft conflicts – non-violent, informal tensions between countries that can disrupt trade without relying on formal sanctions or militarized force. It revisits the author’s previously introduced concept of “interstate soft conflict” within a broader framework of trade resistance and informal economic pressures. Methods: A qualitative case study approach was used to identify 20 instances of interstate soft conflict between 2000 and 2020. Cases were gathered through systematic keyword searches across media and public sources and categorized based on the type of conflict (direct or indirect), the actors involved (state, organization, or individual), and the nature of the actions taken (e.g., boycotts, protests, diplomatic retaliation). Results: The analysis reveals that interstate soft conflicts, though informal and non-institutional, can act as de facto trade barriers. They emerge from political, ethical, and cultural disputes and often lead to reputational damage, reduced trade engagement, and shifts in consumer behavior. These conflicts operate across multiple channels – state-led, organization-led, and consumer-led – and reflect broader geopolitical and ideological divides. Conclusions: In an era where formal trade barriers are declining, informal tensions are becoming a more significant source of trade friction. Recognizing interstate soft conflicts as part of the trade cost landscape is essential for understanding contemporary trade patterns and for designing policies that are resilient to both institutional and informal disruptions

Aim: This study analyzes various tourism sustainability indicators within the protected areas (PAs) of the Gjirokastra region in Albania. Gjirokastra is a highly preferred destination, attracting a significant number of domestic and international visitors. Assessing tourism sustainability indicators in PAs is a necessary step to ensure that tourism growth in these regions remains balanced, sustainable, and aligned with the goals of nature conservation and biodiversity preservation. Methods: For this study, interviews were conducted with representatives of local institutions, and surveys were administered to the local community and visitors to the region’s PAs. The selected indicators were examined from socio-economic, environmental, infrastructural, and institutional perspectives. Using descriptive statistics, we assessed the sustainability indicators by analyzing the results of 112 surveys from the local community and 168 surveys from visitors to these areas. Results: The analysis revealed an increased level of awareness among the local communityregarding the benefits of PAs, particularly in relation to natural and cultural heritage. Additionally, visitors expressed a positive evaluation of socio-economic and environmental indicators. One of the key findings is the lack of information concerning planning and community involvement in the management of PAs. Conclusions: The primary challenge for the destination is establishing priorities for the sustainable development of the region, which necessitates collaboration among all stakeholders. To achieve this, tourism development must be carefully planned, with a focus on environmental preservation and improving the quality of life for residents.

Aim: Understanding the market dynamics of dairy cattle farming in Tanzania is vital for fostering a competitive and sustainable dairy industry. Contract farming is a prominent market structure in this realm, offering small-scale farmers improved breeds, veterinary services, feed, and extension support. However, the engagement of small-scale farmers in dairy cattle contract farming is currently limited. Encouraging its uptake requires a thorough understanding of the driving forces and impediments. Previous studies investigating the factors influencing the adoption of dairy cattle contract farming have overlooked the correlation between the liquidity constraints of vaccination and the barriers to its adoption. This study addresses this gap. Methods: The study analyzed data gathered using a structured questionnaire from 300 randomly selected small-scale dairy cattle farmers in the Mbeya Region and employed a double-probit model to correct sample selection biases. Results: The research uncovered that the adoption of dairy cattle contract farming by small-scale farmers is influenced by household size, risk aversion, access to extension services, radio ownership, quantity of dairy cattle owned, type of dairy cattle breed, liquidity constraints of vaccination, utilization of artificial insemination, and the application of veterinary treatment. Conclusions: The study emphasizes the efforts toward implementing initiatives that streamline farmers’ access to superior dairy cattle breeds, vaccination, veterinary treatment, and artificial insemination services.

This article aims to assess the impact of housing policy implemented in Poland between 2007 and 2023 on housing availability. In particular, the effectiveness of selected government programs is evaluated in terms of their influence on the demand and supply sides of the housing market. A comparative analysis was conducted of key housing policy instruments such as “Family on Its Own” (Rodzina na Swoim), “Housing for the Young” (Mieszkanie dla Młodych), and the “Safe 2% Mortgage” (Bezpieczny Kredyt 2%), taking into account their implementation under varying macroeconomic conditions. The study utilizes statistical data and indicators related to price and wage dynamics. It is demonstrated that the effectiveness of housing support programs is linked to the phase of the business cycle and structural supply constraints. Although demand-side programs temporarily improve access to financing, they may lead to price increases when supply is inelastic, as observed in the case of the “Safe 2% Mortgage.” In the long term, actions based solely on stimulating demand prove insufficient. An effective housing policy should balance demand- and supply-side interventions and support the development of alternative forms of saving and investment. Adapting policy tools to current economic conditions and accounting for the growing role of investment demand are key to sustainably improving housing availability in Poland.

Aim: This study examined the relationship between environmental disclosure practices and the financial performance of manufacturing companies listed on the Nigerian Exchange Group. The objective was to determine whether specific environmental initiatives, such as waste management, resource conservation, energy conservation, emission reduction, and pollution control, significantly impacted financial outcomes. The study aimed to contribute to the ongoing discourse on corporate environmental responsibility and its economic implications. Methods: The study adopted a quantitative research approach, utilizing secondarypanel data from 15 listed manufacturing companies over a defined period. Environmental disclosure practices were measured across five components: waste management practices, resource conservation, energy conservation, emission reduction, and pollution control. The Levin–Lin–Chu unit root test was used to confirm the stationarity of the data series. A Pearson correlation matrix was applied to explore interrelationships among the variables. The study employed panel data regression analysis with a random effects model (confirmed by the Breusch–Pagan Lagrange multiplier test), grounded in signaling theory as the theoretical framework to estimate the effects of environmental practices on financial performance. Results: The results indicated that energy conservation, emission reduction, and pollution control practices significantly enhanced financial performance. Resource conservation showed a positive but less substantial impact. Conversely, waste management practices were negatively associated with financial outcomes, suggesting potential inefficiencies or cost implications. Conclusions: The study concluded that manufacturing firms should prioritize energy conservation, emission reduction, and pollution control within their environmental strategies to improve long-term financial performance and investor perception. A strategic review of waste management practices was also recommended.

Aim: The aim of the paper is to assess the impact of corporate financing structure on economic growth in Albania, given the dominance of the banking sector and the lack of a developed capital market. The paper combines the theory of economic growth with the analysis of business financing in a transitional economy. Methods: The study was based on a literature review and desk research analysis of official data from the Bank of Albania for the years 2020–2024. It considered loan structure by public and privatefinancial and non-financial sectors, as well as the currency structure of loans. Results: The results indicate that debt financing, especially in the banking sector, remains the main source of capital for companies, with a simultaneous lack of alternative capital market instruments. This phenomenon may limit economic growth potential, consistent with endogenous growth theories that emphasize the importance of access to diversified sources of capital. Conclusions: The study concludes that the Albanian financial system is dominated by banks, with limited financial instruments for businesses to diversify their capital structure. There is a need for policies that promote the development of a capital market to ensure sustainable financing options for businesses and reduce excessive reliance on debt. Developing the capital market in Albania is necessary to diversify financing and strengthen the economy’s resilience to external shocks, which would support long-term GDP growth.

Aim: The commercial sector in Tanzania has improved greatly over the last three decades, and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have been a prime mover of economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction. Despite this important role, there are different obstacles to accessing global markets for Tanzanian SMEs, including limited trade support, poor market access, and regulatory barriers. This paper seeks to establish the extent to which trade promotion organizations (TPOs) help in surmounting such challenges and enhancing the export capabilities of SMEs in Dar es Salaam, the economic hub and most populous city in Tanzania. Methods: The study uses a mixed-methods approach and sampled primary data from 400 respondents com­prised of SME representatives and trade stakeholders. Different quantitative techniques were used for the anal­ysis of the effect of TPO interventions with regard to market intelligence, legal advisory services, facilitation of foreign exchange, export-oriented programs, and assistance concerning export procedures, including logistic and multiple linear regression analysis to determine the impact on SME export success. Qualitative perceptions give added depth to this study through a rich understanding of experiences and constraints faced by SMEs. Results: The findings confirm that there is a positive and significant association between TPO-provided services and SME export performance, underlining the crucial role of tailored support. Conclusions: The priorities that come out of this study for policy enhancement include reinforcement of infrastructures of TPOs for actionable market insights, availability of foreign exchange services, and the scale-up of training programs on international trade practices. These recommendations are targeted at ensuring the optimization of TPO efforts in facilitating the entry of SMEs into global markets for sustainable economic development in Tanzania.