Background: From the perspective of achievement goal orientation theory, athletes may evaluate their performance by comparing current achievements with previous achievements (task orientation) or with those of other athletes (ego orientation); these two orientations may affect their sport motivation and performance outcomes in different ways. Objective: Based on a sample of competitive Czech beach volleyball players, this study aimed to assess the relationships among achievement goal orientations (task/ego), sport motivation (represented by intrinsic motivation, extrinsic regulation, and amotivation), and athletes' competitive performance. Methods: A total of 128 beach volleyball players (63 men and 65 women, age 26 ± 6.27 years, range 14-42 years) from the highest Czech national competition participated in the questionnaire survey. The questionnaire battery included the Sport Motivation Scale-6 as a measure of self-determined sport motivation and the Perception of Success Questionnaire as a measure of achievement goal orientation. We used multiple linear regression models to assess the relationships among achievement goal orientations, different types of sports motivation, and athletes' performance in sports competition measured by their point averages at the end of the season. Results: In regression models, we observed different effects of task and ego orientations on dependent variables, including intrinsic motivation, external regulation and athletes' competitive performance. Specifically, we found a highly significant effect of task orientation in the model of intrinsic motivation (ß = .522, p < .001, R2 = .255) and a highly significant effect of ego orientation in the model of external regulation (ß = .394, p < .001, R2 = .132). Furthermore, we found a significant effect of ego orientation in the model of athletes' competitive performance (ß = .239, p = .005, R2 = .122). Conclusions: We assume that task and ego orientations contribute to different outcomes in competitive athletes, with task orientation supporting athletes' interest in and enjoyment of the sport and ego orientation supporting athletes' external regulation and performance in competition. Based on self-determination theory, task orientation may affect intrinsic motivation through the satisfaction of the basic needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence. At the same time, ego orientation may support less self-determined motivation but may also represent an advantage in the highly competitive environment of elite sports.

Background: In clinical practice, resistance training, which includes concentric and eccentric dynamic muscle movements, is widely used by physiotherapists to strengthen the quadriceps muscle. However, although eccentric training is assumed to induce greater hypertrophy compared to concentric contractions, there are also studies reporting that similar increases in muscle thickness can be seen in both eccentric and concentric training.Objective: This study aims to assess the effect of the eccentric and concentric squat exercise on quadriceps thickness, and lower extremity performance during jumping and walking in healthy young sedentary males. Methods: Participants were randomly divided into three groups: concentric exercise group (CE; n = 19), eccentric exercise group (EE; n = 13) and control group (CG; n = 16). Both exercises were performed seven days a week, for eight weeks with a gradual strength increase. The CG was not given any exercise. Ultrasound assessment of quadriceps muscle thickness, performance in Six-Minute Walk Test and vertical jump was measured. Results: Thickness of dominant side of rectus femoris (p = .008) and vastus lateralis (p = .021) differed significantly among the three groups; post hoc analysis revealed the thickness of rectus femoris in CG was significantly lower than in the CE (p = .046) and EE (p = .006) and the thickness of vastus lateralis in the EE was significantly higher than in the CG (p = .018). Six-Minute Walk Test score in the EE was significantly higher than in the CG (p = .025) and the vertical jump score in the CG significantly lower than in the EE (p = .002) and CE (p < .001). Conclusions: Eccentric and concentric training both benefits muscle hypertrophy and lower extremity functional performance. However, eccentric training also appears to offer a small advantage over concentric training.

Background: Primary dysmenorrhea is a cramping pain in the lower abdomen occurring just before or during menstruation without pelvic pathology. One of the methods used to decrease this condition's severity is exercise. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of aerobic and isometric exercises on primary dysmenorrhea. Methods: This was a randomized clinical trial that included 105 females aged 18-25 years complaining of primary dysmenorrhea. The participants were divided into three groups equal in number: (1) aerobic exercise (n = 35), (2) isometric exercise (n = 35), and (3) control group (n = 35). The two intervention groups performed exercises three times a week for eight weeks (two menstrual cycles). Participants were assessed using the plasma progesterone levels, visual analogue scale, and modified menstrual symptom questionnaire. Results: The within-group comparisons before and after the training program demonstrated significant differences in the aerobic exercise group regarding the visual analogue scale (p = .001, d = 0.652), plasma progesterone levels (p = .001, d = 0.688), and modified menstrual symptoms questionnaire (p = .001, d = 0.607). Also, there were significant differences in the isometric exercise group regarding the visual analogue scale (p = .001, d = 0.633), plasma progesterone levels (p = .001, d = 0.502), and modified menstrual symptoms questionnaire (p = .001, d = 0.462); however, no significant differences were observed in the control group. In addition, after the end of the exercise program when compared with their corresponding values measured before intervention significant differences were observed regarding these parameters between the aerobic and control group (p = .001) as well as between the isometric and control group (p = .001). On the other hand, after the end of the exercise program no significant differences were observed between the aerobic and isometric groups regarding the visual analogue scale (p = .14) or plasma progesterone level (p = .14); however, a significant difference was observed in the modified menstrual symptoms questionnaire between these two groups (p = .001) with favor to the aerobic exercise group. Conclusions: Both aerobic and isometric exercises are effective in reducing the severity of dysmenorrhea.

Background: Active methodologies have emerged in which they focus their importance of the teaching-learning process in students and not only on the result. In this way, research has been conducted using the active methodology Flipped Learning (FL) in all areas of Primary, Secondary and Higher Education. Objective: The current study aims to analyze the effect on student motivation after an intervention with the FL teaching technique, using a Parkour Didactic Unit in primary school students. Methods: One hundred students of 6th grade of Primary (11-12 years old) participated in this study, of which, 45 were girls and 55 were boys. It was randomly decided that 6ºB and 6ºD would follow the teaching styles that were already used in the center regularly (TRAD group) and otherwise, the 6ºA and 6ºC groups used FL teaching technique by watching videos created by the principal investigator for the present investigation (FLIP group). The Motivation Questionnaire in Physical Education in primary education and personal interview were applied before and after intervention. Results: The results showed an increase of intrinsic motivation (p < .001), identified motivation (p < .001) and introjected motivation (p < .001) in FLIP group. Moreover, external motivation, as well as the amotivation of the students, has decreased after the intervention. Regarding the TRAD group, a significant decrease in intrinsic motivation and identified motivation was observed. According to qualitative results, the most remarkable thing is that students consider FL as more fun, efficient, accepted and motivating. Conclusions: Intrinsic motivation increased significantly and amotivation values decrease in FL group. FL approach allows using more time in Physical Education classes and, consequently, it is perceived as more fun for the students.

Background: For the majority of students, the transition into higher education seems to have deleterious effects on their physical activity (PA) behaviors and motivation. To tackle students' physical inactivity, reforms in higher education were supposed to reinvent physical education (PE) programs, revise their objectives and tasks. Nevertheless, European universities are experiencing a physical activity crisis, and recent generations of students are facing health problems due to underprovided levels of PA. Objective: The aim of this descriptive study was to analyze the state and status of physical education in higher education in selected European countries with regards to its curriculum and resources. Methods: Quantitative data were collected from 66 tertiary institutions from various countries in Europe. The questionnaire was used to gather information regarding characteristics of tertiary institutions, sport and leisure facilities, types and characteristics of PA programs available for students. Results: PE classes were obligatory in 44% and facultative in 30.3% of tertiary institutions; 22.7% of the institutions offered mixed PE curricula. The most popular team sports were volleyball, soccer and basketball, whereas fitness and functional training were the most popular types of individual PA. PE sessions lasted one or two semesters in 53% of the institutions. In 12% of establishments, PE was not part of curricula. In 60% of institutions, PE curricula consisted of 31-60 academic hours during the entire study program, and 55% of establishments charged additional fees for sports activities. In 55% of the analyzed institutions, physical fitness assessments were conducted only to determine students' eligibility to participate in team sports. Conclusions: The research study investigated problems of insufficient PA levels in higher education, indicating several reasons for this state of affairs. The study recommends that PE curricula are thoughtfully planned and executed with improved financing. Furthermore, PE ought to be combined with health education to promote active and healthy lifestyles among students.

Background: Several studies have compared the physical, physiological and anthropometric characteristics according to age and playing position in soccer. However, no studies have researched the comparison of emotional intelligence (EI) levels of soccer players. Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare the EI levels of soccer players in their age and playing position. Methods: A total of 550 male soccer players were divided into four groups according to their age: under-17 (n = 135), under-19 (n = 131), under-21 (n = 144) and 22+ (n = 140) and playing position: goalkeeper (n = 101), defender (n = 159), midfielder (n = 148) and forward (n = 142). EI levels of soccer were evaluated through the Emotional Intelligence Inventory in Sport. Results: Players in the lowest age category showed significantly (p < .001) higher EI level. Moreover, midfielders have also significantly (p = .039) higher EI level than other players. Conclusions: The results of this study indicated that the level of EI varies according to players' age and playing position. These findings might be used for the evaluation of psychological and physiological responses required for soccer-specific performance.

Background: Hydrogen-rich water (HRW) has been shown to have a stimulating effect on the human body. Objective: The aim of the study was to assess the influence of acute HRW intake on autonomic cardiac regulation during 50 min of rest sitting. Methods: Fourteen healthy females (age 21.7 ± 1.2 years, body mass 67.8 ± 8.7 kg, height 167 ± 5.5 cm) took part in this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial with crossover design. Heart rate variability (HRV) was monitored in the sitting position after administration of 1260 ml of HRW or placebo. Time domain indexes of HRV as the square root of the mean of the squares of differences between adjacent RR intervals (RMSSD), the standard deviation of all RR intervals (SDNN) and the ratio of SDNN/RMSSD as an index of sympatho-vagal balance were used to assess autonomic cardiac response. The values were transformed using natural logarithm (Ln). Results: After administration of HRW, we found significantly increased ratio Ln SDNN/RMSSD when comparing it to placebo in 25 min (HRW: 0.40 ± 0.30, placebo: 0.26 ± 0.25, p = .049) and 35 min (HRW: 0.44 ± 0.30, placebo: 0.28 ± 0.28, p = .029) of rest sitting. Ln SDNN was significantly increased after HRW administration when compared to placebo in 45 min (HRW: 4.41 ± 0.42 ms, placebo: 4.28 ± 0.31 ms, p = .049) of rest sitting. Conclusions: Acute HRW ingestion induced a relative increase in sympathetic activity between 25 and 35 min post-ingestion, whereas vagal activity was not affected.

Background: The influence of parents on physical activity (PA) and body weight of their children is confirmed by scientific studies. However, it is not known whether only children or those with siblings have a higher level of PA and healthier body weight. Objective: The aims of this study are (i) to assess whether there are any differences in the achievement of the daily step count (SC) recommendation and in the prevalence of overweight/obesity between only children and children from families with multiple children, and (ii) to investigate whether the achievement of the SC recommendation by children/parents and parental overweight/obesity is associated with childhood obesity. Methods: The analysis included 566 families (10.6%/89.4% with single child/two or more children) with complete data on weight status and PA monitored with a Yamax pedometer during regular school/work between 2013-2019. The daily SC recommendation amounted to ≥ 13,000/11,000 SC for 5-12-year-old sons/daughters and ≥ 10,000 SC for 12-16-year-old adolescents and adults. The chi-square test was used to compare the achievement of the daily SC recommendation and the prevalence of overweight/obesity. Binary logistic regression analyses were used to investigate whether the achievement of the daily SC recommendation by children/parents and parental overweight/obesity were associated with obesity in their offspring. Results: A significantly higher proportion of children with siblings achieved the recommended daily SC (51.8% vs. 31.7%, p = .003) and showed a lower prevalence of overweight (16.2% vs. 20.0%, p = .041) and obesity (7.1% vs. 20.0%, p < .001) compared with only children. The achievement of the daily SC recommendation in children significantly (p < .05) decreased the odds ratio of obesity (odds ratios 0.22-0.34, 95% confidence intervals 0.07-0.85). Conclusions: Children from families with siblings had higher physical activity and healthier body weight than those from single-child families. However, reaching the recommended daily SC reduces the likelihood of childhood obesity, regardless of the presence of a sibling in the family.

Background: Laser beam devices have been widely used for the assessment of cervical proprioception. However, their reliability for the assessment of repositioning accuracy in patients with chronic neck pain requires further examination. Objective: Examination of test-retest and inter-rater reliability of a laser beam device for the assessment of cervical proprioception in patients with chronic neck pain. Methods: Twenty patients with chronic neck pain were conveniently recruited. The patients performed a head-to-neutral test at four different movement directions (flexion, extension, left and right rotation) and a head-to-target test at two different movement directions (left and right rotation) by wearing on their head a laser beam device. Five trials were performed at each direction. The assessment was performed by two different raters for examining inter-rater reliability. One of the raters reassessed the patients after a one-hour resting period to examine test-retest reliability. Results: Test-retest reliability was found to be moderate to good (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] .56-.81, standard error of measurement [SEM] 2.09-5.01 cm, smallest detectable difference [SDD] 5.79-13.87 cm). Inter-rater reliability was found to be moderate to excellent (ICC .59-.92, SEM 1.75-3.27 cm, SDD 4.85-9.05 cm). Conclusions: A laser beam device presented moderate to excellent reproducibility, however relatively high measurement error for assessing cervical proprioception in patients with chronic neck pain.

Background: Sport media coverage of women's participation has long been viewed as perpetuating hegemonic masculinity. Yet several authors have found recent coverage of mega, multi-sport events, such as the Summer Olympic Games, to be more equitable towards women, particularly when examined proportionally to participation. The Czech Republic for various reasons has traditionally been resistant to feminist ideology, marking its unique positioning in providing an equitable presentation of women's participation. Objective: To examine the influence of hegemonic masculinity in an Eastern European culture, portrayed through Czech online media coverage of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. Methods: Online media coverage of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games was examined for gendered differences of Czech athletes. Analysis of number of articles, length of articles, type of sport, and whether the article was about domestic or foreign athletes, was evaluated over 17 days of media coverage on two dominant Czech sport media websites. Results were compared in relation to gender, participation rates and medal success. Results: A total of 860 articles were reviewed, with 49.7% favoring male athletes, and 38.6% female. Articles about female athletes were largely composed of reporting on female medal winners (medal winning: media coverage correlation .845, p < .001), while those on male athletes were predominantly from the cultural dominant sport of men's ice hockey (25.1%). Conclusions: The findings suggest that success is more important than perpetuations of hegemonic masculinity when men and women are competing in mega, multi-sport events. Implications of these findings are also provided in terms of type of media coverage and influences of equity in media coverage for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games.