Abstract Westerwanna are four-sided dice first produced among the Frisii people in the northern Netherlands and Germany during the late Iron Age and Imperial Roman period. We report analyses on a set of 27 Westerwanna and 15 oblong four-sided dice from this region to examine their cultural origin. While some attributes, such as Sevens configuration, conform strongly to patterns in Roman six-sided dice, others, such as pip orientation and layout, more closely resemble Celtic and Free Germania oblong dice. We argue in this article that Westerwanna dice reflect a blending of cultural information from different ancient cultures, resulting in a new form.

Abstract The significance of animal images on ancient artefacts is best understood when the depicted animals are correctly identified. Unfortunately, a high degree of stylisation can make this difficult, and ancient forms of stylisation often influence modern scholars to mistake depictions of ordinary animals for depictions of dragons. To help alleviate this, here I present a review of such depictions on ancient European artefacts, in which comparative anatomy and iconographical homology elucidate the likely identities of the depicted animals. Examples include likely horses and horse-headed designs on Celtic belt buckles, likely horse-headed ornament on Celtic scabbards, likely horse-headed designs on Scythian and Celtic horse equipment decorations, and possibly non-representational sigmoid brooches from the Roman period of Britain.

From the perspective of the ruling powers in the Ancient world, the strategic vision involved connecting collective communities, not merely linking different locations. Numerous examples show that the perception of “people” took precedence over places of belonging, to the extent that entire communities were often relocated to areas far from their original territory. This vision also prevailed in road construction. All great empires built robust road networks, recognizing the strategic role that communication played in consolidating unity among distant communities.

Abstract Studying settlement patterns solely from a typological perspective is often not sufficient. It is crucial to understand their locations and how they interact with each other. More specifically, communication routes play a vital role in daily life, connecting communities, trade routes and ideas. The main objective of this article is to explore the potential mobility on the territory controlled by the Roman city of Ilunum (Hellín, Albacete) during the Early Empire, as well as the possible accessibility of each of the documented settlements on this natural communication hub. All this has been carried out with the GIS framework, and with MADO analysis being the main axis of this research. This investigation highlighted the number of possibilities that the new technologies, specifically the network analysis, have to study some archaeological data that will be almost impossible to study with traditional methods due to their limitations.

Abstract Roman roads have been a common topic of study since the beginning of archaeological research. However, the methodological approaches have received significant advances in the last decades, mainly thanks to GIS -based studies and terrain modelling with LiDAR data. Thus, novel research has begun to show new roads and routes and offer new insights into Roman connections. In the same spirit, this work focuses on the study of the route known as the via XVIII or the via Nova, which crossed the region of Allariz-Maceda. This road crossed the Conventus Bracarense from Asturica Augusta to Bracara Augusta, which has one of the highest concentrations of road epigraphy in the Roman Empire. This density of finds has motivated the choice of this case study, as it provides a highly productive context for tracing and uncovering Roman roads, whether or not they are directly related to this route. The main objective of this research is to apply a methodology based on node analysis, aerial photograph interpretation and the study of digital terrain models to identify Roman road routes. Along this line, a methodological approach will be proposed to describe its potentialities, following an archaeological characterisation of the study area. A brief portrait of the most common features of Roman roads is also provided. Finally, the characteristics of each identified section are described, interpreting their characteristics in relation to the basic criteria of Roman road infrastructures.

Abstract Studies on Roman mobility are not often interested in the Alps. And even when they are, they tend to focus on general road reconstruction. This means identifying the roads mentioned in ancient Itineraria , suggesting possible routes followed and passes crossed and locating the sites of post stations on the ground. However, little attention is paid in these studies to the layout of the roads, their technical characteristics and their relationship with the natural environment. In particular, they often seem to ignore the fact that in ancient times people travelled (especially in the mountains) not only by cart but especially by walking or using pack animals. Consequently, they do not provide a complete understanding of the phenomenon of Roman mobility in the Alps. In an attempt to fill this gap, a research project ( TRIALP – TRIdentinae ALpes Project) was carried out at the University of Trento, Italy, from 2021 to 2025. One of the aims of the project was to study the Roman road network in the Alpine region of Trento, known in Roman times as the Tridentinae Alpes , using a wide range of digital and field methodologies. These methods made it possible to go beyond the mere description of road paths and to explore Roman Alpine mobility from a new perspective. Using the Tridentinae Alpes as a case study, this article will therefore present some methodological appraisals and insights derived from the results obtained by the research project that may be useful for studying Roman mobility in the Alps.

Abstract This study explores mobility in the Monti Lucretili district (Lazio, Italy) through a microregional perspective and a diachronic approach. We model historical pathways beyond primary routes, integrating secondary networks critical to the region’s socio-economic articulation. The model is tested against legacy data and reveals the persistence of mountain routes, shaped by geomorphological constraints and economic activities such as transhumance, agriculture, charcoal production and snow trade. GIS cost analysis and network science allow us to simulate movement patterns, highlighting how mobility facilitated resource exploitation and settlement dynamics from prehistory to modern times. The results challenge traditional historiographical perspectives that prioritise monumental settlements in fertile valleys. The model emphasises the role of upland landscapes in shaping regional connectivity. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of historical mobility networks and demonstrate their stability and functional adaptation over time.

Abstract This study employs Geographic Information Systems ( GIS ) and remote sensing to reconstruct and analyse Roman roads in the Bay of Cádiz, a region characterised by its intricate coastal and fluvial landscape. By integrating aerial orthophotography and LiDAR data, historical route structures are identified and analysed through a paleodigital terrain model. Least-cost path ( LCP ) analysis and friction maps are applied to assess transitability, enabling the reconstruction of optimal routes between key archaeological sites. The methodology proves particularly effective for studying historical infrastructures in dynamic coastal environments, where sedimentation, water bodies and geomorphological changes obscure ancient paths. Validation against archaeological evidence and historical sources confirms the reliability of the reconstructed routes, offering a robust framework for understanding mobility in antiquity. Beyond its archaeological significance, this approach provides a transferable model for investigating transportation networks in similarly complex landscapes. This method holds potential applications for heritage conservation, landscape archaeology and the study of historical adaptation to environmental challenges.