Abstract This paper aims to understand the national-level policy change that occurred in Brazilian drought management, whereby the policy shifted from reactive crisis management to a drought preparedness approach. We found that a combination of factors supported the policy change, such as the interplay of multiple drought events in different regions of the country, the length and timing of these events, attention paid to the issue, and the role of policy entrepreneurs and political entrepreneurs in connecting solutions to the problem. The analysis is based on the multiple streams framework (MSF), which includes two windows of opportunity: an agenda window, to account for the juncture at which the drought issue appeared on the political and public agenda; and the decision window, when a drought preparedness instrument was designed and adopted. We contribute to the literature on policy change in the wake of a disaster by showing how a long-duration event sparked policy change and by shedding light on the role of creeping crises as focusing events; and we contribute to the MSF literature by analytically distinguishing the features of the agenda and the decision window and by applying the theory to a Latin American context

Abstract Conducting a health assessment of rivers and lakes is a technical approach that enables the accurate diagnosis of water health status and scientific analysis of aquatic ecological environments. This paper focuses on studying the typical rain-sourced water bodies of Huangrigang River and Dishui Lake (DSL) in Lin-gang, Shanghai. The Australian Stream Condition Index and the Analytic Hierarchy Process were used to establish a typical river and lake health evaluation index system. Expert scoring and least-squares methods were used to determine the weights of each index, and a quartile method was used to establish the evaluation criteria. The evaluation results indicate that the health status of the Huangrigang River is sub-healthy with a score of 72.1, whereas DSL is healthy with a score of 75.7. The low flow velocity of the regional river and the weak mobility of the water body are the main issues affecting the health status of the HRGR. Additionally, the density of phytoplankton in the river is significantly high. Dripping Lake is faced with two major problems: a high risk of eutrophication and a high density of phytoplankton in the lake. This article provides theoretical support for the sustainable use of regional water resource.

Abstract Access to improved drinking water and sanitation has been declared a fundamental right by the UN General Assembly. However, around 25 and 50% of the global population lacked access to safely managed drinking water and improved sanitation in 2020, respectively. India, the second most populous country in the world, has around 3.7 and 31% of its population without access to improved drinking water and sanitation, respectively. This paper explores the factors determining a household's access to improved drinking water and sanitation in India, using India Human Development Survey (IHDS) II data. The results indicate that urban households with bigger family sizes, with fewer rooms, married but uneducated household heads, belonging to forward castes, were more likely to have access to improved drinking water. Similarly, households with married female heads, belonging to forward castes, small household sizes, older aged heads with primary education, from Non-EAG (Empowered Action Group) states, located in urban areas, earning higher incomes and having more number of rooms were more likely to have access to improved sanitation. Findings suggest subsidized improved water and sanitation services and an increase in public investment to make these facilities affordable for poor rural households

Abstract Country-level sanitation access is monitored globally by the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). However, recent reports on sanitation access in high-income countries indicate that the JMP data may underestimate the prevalence of unsafely managed sanitation in these settings. This study explains the surveys that collect household-level wastewater management data in the U.S. and analyzes the accuracy and reliability of these data sets. From 1940 to 1990, sewage disposal data were collected comprehensively through the U.S. Decennial Census. These data are currently collected through the American Housing Survey (AHS) which appears to greatly underestimate the usage of onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS). In addition to these surveys, we highlight current efforts to introduce a sewage disposal question to the American Community Survey (ACS), localized efforts to collect wastewater data, and the Point-in-Time count of people experiencing homelessness. Using estimates of OWTS usage in new housing, this study provides the first defensible national estimate of OWTS usage since 1990. We estimate that 25.03% of U.S. households use OWTS which exceeds the AHS estimate (15.7%) by over 12 million households. This study discusses the potential for better wastewater data collection to inform future wastewater policy and improve the quality of life for U.S. residents.

Abstract The bi-level programming coupling model of uncertainty constraints and interval parameter programming is developed to optimize the allocation of water resources and conduct a comprehensive analysis of water resource carrying capacity. The model uses an uncertainty credibility number set and interval value to deal with uncertain factors, and analyses the water resources allocation of Longchuan River in central Yunnan. The competition mechanism and polynomial variation improved algorithm are used to analyze the water consumption, economic benefits and satisfaction in different planning periods when λ = 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0. The results show that the uncertain bi-level coupling model can cause changes in water allocation, pollutant discharge, system efficiency, etc., and can also effectively balance the mutual constraints between economic benefits and environmental pollution discharge, ensuring a good development trend in the planning year. The water diversion from other basins such as the Central Yunnan Water Diversion Project was transferred to Longchuan River Basin to increase the water supply, and the carrying capacity was further improved, with an increase of water resources by 25.9%. The model research has certain practical and strategic significance for maintaining the sustainable development of the ecological environment in the Longchuan River Basin

Abstract The paper aimed to evaluate the impacts of water pricing and quota policies under changing climatic conditions on the major production factors using economic-biophysical modeling. The data were collected by 382 questionnaires focusing on wheat, barley, cotton, alfalfa, and sugar beet crops in the 2017–2018 cropping year in North Khorasan Province, Iran. Climate change scenarios were defined as wet, moderate, and dry scenarios resulting from precipitation changes. The results showed that climate change scenarios reduce the total irrigated area of crops and total water used. Due to the effect of precipitation on crop yield, dry and moderate climate changes reduce the total gross income, while wet climate changes increase it. The scenarios of quota and pricing policies were then applied under climate change scenarios. The amount of water conserved by applying the quota policy was equal to the quota rate, while the impact of the pricing policy varied depending on the type of climate change. The highest amount of water conserved belonged to the conditions of dry climate change in Atrak and Central Desert catchments, which was about 6.8–8.6 and 3.83–14.48%, respectively. As the climate moves toward drought conditions in this province, the implementation of such policies can partially protect water resources.

Abstract Based on the framework of shared socio-economic pathways, this study predicts future population and economic conditions of the Zhanghe River Basin and combines with the water quota to predict future water demand. First, the localization parameter system is constructed. Furthermore, the water demand is calculated. The results show that (1) under regional competitive pathway, the population is the largest, while under uneven pathway, the population is the smallest. The largest economic forecast is obtained under fossil fuel development pathway, while the smallest economic forecast is obtained under regional competitive pathway. (2) The results for domestic and economic water use in the basin show that the annual water demand shows an increasing trend. Fossil fuel development pathway is the scenario with the highest socio-economic water demand, while regional competitive pathway is the scenario with the least. (3) The Zhanghe River Basin faces a high risk of water resource shortage in the future. Even under the situation of minimum socio-economic water demand, the total water demand is difficult to meet fully. The forecasting framework established in this paper has high application value and can provide a reference for water demand forecasting and prospective water demand management in river basins.

Abstract Contemporary adaptation to urban flooding is based on risk management. Urban planners have both an active role in studying cities and a supportive role in helping to define policies. From 33 case studies, this review tries to give insight into how flood risk management fares in confronting international directives on disaster reduction and sustainability, by defining seven sustainability performance criteria. Most studies try to maximize the acceptability and feasibility of implementing solutions in cities (63.6%) and the revision of existing building codes and plans (51.5%), while fewer try to test existing urban practices for weak points (27.3%). Analyses do not fully consider urban habitats as holistic and complex systems, as citizen awareness (27.3%), costs (21.2%), and biodiversity (24.2%) are some of the least recurring and intersecting themes. The main findings should help planners define new lines of action on urban flooding and consider alternative aspects in their frameworks.

Abstract Potable water scarcity is a global issue. Recent and ongoing droughts in the Western United States make residential water conservation crucial. Several water agencies have invested in conservation programs that educate residents on non-traditional water sources, such as laundry-to-landscape (L2L) greywater systems, which reuse washing machine water for outdoor irrigation. This study analyzed landscape vegetation and 21 greywater characteristics of 30 households with L2L systems in Santa Clara County, California. Greywater from most residential systems, even ones decades-old and unmaintained, had acceptable reuse values for major water quality parameters tested. Overall, 89% of fecal coliform counts fell within the acceptable range for water reuse, although counts were higher in non-code-compliant systems than in code-compliant L2L systems. The mean values for coliform counts, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total organic carbon, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and sodium adsorption ratio were lower than the means previously reported for L2L systems. Analysis of water samples indicated high levels of iron and calcium, which merits further investigation. Outdoor vegetation appeared diverse and healthy. The promising results here indicate a high potential for expanding L2L programs. Wider system adoption can diversify regional water supply in service areas where the residential sector accounts for significant water use.

Abstract Water diplomacy and conflict transformation are dominated by an interest-based paradigm, where attention is given solely to achieving security and peace. We intend to critically challenge this paradigm – which is mainly dominated by the views of the Global North – by emphasising two other important but often overlooked elements: equity and identity. We argue that diplomacy within the contemporary paradigm is easily manipulated by the broader security and peace interests of foreign powers in a manifestation of global and regional geopolitical rivalry. We conclude that pro-security-peace water diplomacy is an inefficacious remedy, and posit instead that equity and particularly identity should be placed at the heart of water diplomacy and conflict transformation. While introducing a new alternative definition, we call for a paradigm shift, from security-peace to equity-identity orientation, to give space for the voice of the Global South in the analysis of hydropolitical relations. This approach affords additional insights into and explanations for hydropolitical patterns, and helps us to define new strategies for decolonising water diplomacy in practice.