ABSTRACT This study investigates the erosive impact of wind-blown sand on earthen sites within arid environments through the establishment of meteorological observation equipment. Over a span of 47 months, a comprehensive approach encompassing numerical simulation, plume analysis, particle examination, three-dimensional scanning, and photo monitoring was employed to continuously monitor the patterns of wind-blown sand movement and the degradation of test walls. The study identifies six distinct zones extending from five times the windward side to ten times the leeward side of the test wall’s height. Notably, a negative correlation between captured particle mass and the height of the sand traps is observed, with 70% of particles concentrated within 50 cm from the base of the test wall. Three primary erosion mechanisms for wind-blown sand are elucidated, including frontal impact, side abrasion, and reverse sapping. Furthermore, the study highlights pronounced erosion at the base of the wall due to vortex flow, with depth erosion affecting the lower, side, and upper sections of the test walls. This paper delves into the erosion mechanisms and operational models of wind-blown sand flow surrounding discontinuous site walls, offering valuable insights for the conservation of ancient earthen sites.

ABSTRACT As ecological architecture and green buildings have become essential in the fight against climate change, earthen architecture has an undoubted role to play in achieving this goal because of its numerous benefits. To help providing a better understanding of the behavior of earthen materials to fulfill modern architectural needs and to preserve earthen heritages, this study aims to investigate the effect of stabilization using Portland cement and quicklime and that of reinforcement using date palm fibers on the compressive creep, ultrasonic properties, and swelling of adobes, besides their impacts on physical characteristics. One of the earthen heritages in Algeria is taken as a case study, and various adobe mixes were examined to attain this objective. The outcomes revealed that stabilization overall improved the properties of adobes, unlike the mutable impact of fibers. Stabilizers played an important role in reducing creep, while fibers reduced the creep of the unstabilized adobes and those with 6%PC-3%QL, but withdrew the positive effect that was offered by binders for adobes with 10%QL and 3%PC-6%QL. Water absorption and swelling were reduced by stabilization, but both increased with the presence of fibers. The changes in ultrasonic characteristics showed a good correlation with those of compressive strength.

ABSTRACT The diagnosis of cultural heritage structures is a challenging and delicate task. It involves the evaluation of potential pathological situations, the understanding of the origin of displacements and deformations, and the assessment of the state of conservation of building materials. Destructive and minor destructive techniques are mostly prevented from being used in the context of historical constructions and the complementary use of non-destructive techniques is often the only viable solution. This paper addresses the possibility of employing point clouds, widely used for representation aims, as a source of information to identify the deterioration patterns that can affect construction safety. The proposed methodology includes two approaches following a perspective based on simple and recurring elements that form the complex and unique shape of historical buildings. The geometry of structural elements guides the choice towards the computation either of the Z-coordinate of each point of the cloud or the Euclidean distance between the point cloud and an elementary non-deformed geometry fitted to it. By investigating several case studies and diverse deterioration patterns, the proposal establishes a framework to employ point clouds, together with other techniques, as an effective tool to support the diagnosis of heritage structures.

ABSTRACT Roman concrete is one of the most fascinating materials ever invented by humankind. Understanding the historical context and details of the production of ancient Roman concrete (ARC) is necessary to comprehend its nature. Recently, the interest in researching ARC has grown considerably, leading to several projects to describe its production. Remarkable properties were attributed to ARC, with durability emerging as one of the most relevant but also the most misunderstood. The reasons for the durability of Roman structures are still under investigation, and various hypotheses have linked its durability to the microstructure, or its chemical and mineralogical composition. In this literature review, historical facts contextualize ARC and detail the specific materials and methods used for production. It also becomes clear that the chemical, mineralogical, and mechanical characterization of ARC has begun to link research from different disciplines, providing an overview of this material, and exploring some of the unexplained facts that could potentially improve today’s concrete technology.

ABSTRACT The Digital Twin (DT) technology has shown promise in transforming complex engineered systems. However, its adoption in the Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO) field, particularly for Built Cultural Heritage (BCH) conservation, is still in its early stages. This study presents a systematic literature review of 85 academic publications to evaluate the current state of DT implementation in heritage building conservation and identifies areas for optimising preventive management. In addition, this review explores interpretations of the DT concept in this field, addressing overlaps with Historical/Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM), discusses DT functionalities and presents existing frameworks. The findings demonstrate the potential of DT to revolutionise BCH conservation through a holistic approach. However, further focus is needed on features and tools for enhancing performance-based management with targeted strategies and advanced data analysis. Future research should prioritise developing these aspects to fully leverage the potential of the DT paradigm in BCH conservation.

ABSTRACT In the last decade, the documentation of historical buildings has made tremendous progress in generalising the use of high-precision laser scanning and drone photogrammetry. Yet the potential of digital surveying is not fully exploited due to difficulties in manually analysing large amounts of collected data. Machine learning offers immense potential as a game-changer in building archaeology, especially for the documentation of structures composed of millions of units. This paper presents the first segmentation of large-scale surveys of historic masonry using machine learning, using the thirteenth-century Basilica of St Anthony (Padua, Italy) as a case study. Based on a drone survey of the north façade of the building (110 × 70 m), a state-of-the-art non-learning segmentation approach is described and its limitations for historical structures are illustrated. Then, a new workflow based on convolutional neural networks (CNN) is presented. The result is a precise mapping of about 300,000 individual bricks showing a large variety of formats and bonds. The automatic surveys are analysed using visual programming language (VPL), enabling a rapid and feature-based identification of building phases and repair interventions. The outcome demonstrates the validity of machine learning for the analysis of historical structures and its potential in the field of heritage.

ABSTRACT Rammed earth techniques have a long history and are widely used in the Mediterranean and China. These traditional techniques developed independently in the two regions, producing differences and similarities. Tools and materials as two essential aspects are compared in this paper. For ease of movement and secure fixing, formworks comprise forms, end-stops, and retaining devices. The latter determines how the formwork is used. The formwork size represents the main difference and influences various aspects. Although the choice of the earth for construction is similar, the different local soil components and materials constitute essential differences in reinforcing rammed earth in the two areas.

ABSTRACT To quantitatively calculate the moment-rotation relationship of loose continuous-tenon joints in traditional column-and-tie timber frame, the rotational deformation of loose joints is divided into two stages: free sliding and contact compression. Using constitutive, geometric, and equilibrium equations, a theoretical formula for moment-rotation is derived. The calculated values are then compared with experimental results to validate the accuracy of the theoretical calculation method. A sensitivity analysis is conducted on typical parameters, such as beam height, column diameter, joint clearance, and perpendicular compression modulus of wood, to explore their effects on the moment-rotation relationship of tenon joints. The results show that increasing the perpendicular compression modulus of wood leads to greater bending stiffness and load carrying capacity of tenon joints, with the latter increasing more significantly. In the elastic stage, the rotational stiffness of the joint increases with beam height or column diameter, while after entering the elastoplastic stage, the joint stiffness is less influenced by these factors. The initial rotational stiffness and load carrying capacity of the joint both decrease with joint clearance, and the effect of joint clearance on load carrying capacity decreases as the clearance increases when the joint enters the yielding stage.

ABSTRACT In this study, the bulk modification method via incorporating two different types of waterproof admixtures was adopted to make natural hydraulic lime-based mortars more durable. The influence of two admixtures and their dosages on the hydration, physical, mechanical, and aggressive environment resistance properties were evaluated. The correlations between pore and water absorption characteristics, between hydration, pore characteristics, and mechanical strength were interpreted. Results showed that two waterproof admixtures changed the microscopic reaction between different components as well as internal structure of NHL-based mortar. Introduction of silane impregnant improved the workability of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars, and the appropriate dosage of silane impregnant facilitated hydration and improved mechanical strength at 28 and 90 days. Silane impregnant modified mortars were no more hydrophilic, acid resistance was improved while water absorption characteristics were not obviously improved even resulting in degraded freeze-thaw cycle resistance. Introduction of silicon-acrylic latex deteriorated the workability and retarded hydration of natural hydraulic lime-based mortars, regardless of dosage, leading to the degradation of mechanical strength. However, water absorption characteristics and freeze-thaw cycle and acid resistance can get a noticeable improvement when appropriate dosage was adopted.

ABSTRACT This paper builds upon histories of Berwick Bridge, setting out a new interdisciplinary appraisal of its conception, design choices, and construction to account for its unique arch profile. Berwick Bridge is a sandstone bridge of 15 arches that spans the Tweed, a river that delimits much of the English-Scottish border on the east coast of Great Britain. Constructed between 1611 and 1624, after the Union of the Crowns in 1603, Berwick Bridge is a rare example of a state-funded building project during peacetime, and it represents an embryonic form of national infrastructure that would not re-emerge until the 19th century. However, the economic importance of Berwick-upon-Tweed belies the sufferance of the unreliable crossings that had previously served the town until the stone bridge was finished, and an explanation of the bridge’s geometry is absent from current literature. By pairing a history of the town’s experience of construction embodied in wooden iterations of the bridge and the fortifications, the technical confidence of the principal designers is affirmed in the shifting arch shapes as reflexive to material and monetary availability—as well as the site’s challenging physical geography.