Youth Street Groups in Spain: Prevalence, Associated Factors, and Gender Differences

The first part of this chapter describes the basic structural contours of youth crime and victimization in a comparative perspective; the second part of the chapter focuses on the importance of school, education and social learning. Accordingly, this chapter reports on the results of a large international collaborative study of juvenile delinquency and victimization (International Self Report Delinquency Study—ISRD2) conducted in 30 countries between 2006 and 2008. About 68,000 pupils in grades 7, 8 and 9 (12–15 year old) answered questions about alcohol and drug use, offending, victimization, family, school, friends, neighborhood and attitudes towards violence. Presentation of the results uses six country clusters, based on an expansion of Esping-Andersen’s (1990) welfare regimes: Anglo-Saxon countries (liberal model), West-European countries (corporatist model), Scandinavian countries (social democratic model), South European countries (Mediterranean model), Post-socialist countries, and a Latin American group. The overall result is that delinquent behavior and victimization is a rather common, typical experience among most youth. Youth who spend more time with family rather than friends, and youth who like school and perform well are less likely to commit delinquent acts (and be victimized) than their counterparts. This finding is true for all 30 countries in the study.

Šiame straipsnyje, pasitelkiant Tarptautinio jaunimo delinkvencinio elgesio, nuostatų ir viktimizacijos tyrimo (The Third International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD-3)1) Lietuvoje duomenis, tiriamos situacinio veiksmo teorijos prielaidos lyties aspektu. Siekiama patikrinti, ar situacinio veiksmo teorijos prielaidos pasitvirtina aiškinant nepilnamečių delinkvencinį elgesį Lietuvoje ir ar šios teorijos prielaidos gali vienodai paaiškinti tiek vaikinų, tiek merginų delinkvencinį elgesį. Gauti tyrimo rezultatai leidžia kalbėti apie tai, kad ne visos situacinio veiksmo teorijos prielaidos buvo patvirtintos, o merginų ir vaikinų delinkvencinį elgesį prognozuoja kiek skirtingi veiksniai.

In this article, we explore the relationship between the heterogeneity of secondary school classes and juvenile delinquency. The heterogeneity of school classes was measured by calculating the Herfindahl index of variety in students’ immigration background. The index was composed of three groups: natives, first-generation immigrants, and second-generation immigrants. Involvement in 13 forms of juvenile delinquency, committed during the last 12 months, was our independent variable. The offenses were grouped into minor, violent, and property offenses. The data analyzed the national class-based sample of seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students in Switzerland ( n = 4,158) and were collected in 2013 within the framework of the Third International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD3). In general, it was found that juveniles are more likely to commit offenses when they attend school classes with higher heterogeneity, regardless of the nature of the heterogeneity (i.e., mixture of natives, first-generation immigrants, or second-generation immigrants). Within the bivariate analysis, the heterogeneity of school classes relates significantly to involvement in graffiti, vandalism, shoplifting, group fight, robbery, burglary, bicycle theft, vehicle theft, and personal theft. After statistically controlling for gender and school grade, effects of class heterogeneity persist for selected offenses.

The empirical evidence on the process-based model of self-regulation shows that procedural justice evaluations and the perceived legitimacy of authorities impact law-abiding behavior. However, few studies analyze this theory from the perspective of adolescent legal socialization. The present study aims to examine the process-based model and other socializing agents such as family, school and peers that may have an effect on it. The sample comprised 2041 youths residing in Spain, aged between 13 and 18 years. The data form part of the Third International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD-3). Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to predict police legitimacy and juvenile delinquency. The results reveal that police legitimacy perceptions are not only influenced by procedural justice, but also by parental monitoring, school attachment, and delinquent peers. Moreover, perceptions of police legitimacy, parental monitoring, and delinquent peers predict juvenile delinquency. These findings complement and add new explanatory factors to the process-based model.

Juvenile delinquency is something that violates the norms and rules that apply in the local area. Usually, the delinquency is caused by peers and lack of parental attention. This study aims to review students' knowledge and the influence of peers in committing juvenile delinquency. Then, this study also aims to find out the strategies and school programs in overcoming juvenile delinquency. Through a mix method explanatory approach, this research is expected to develop a comprehensive strategy in overcoming juvenile delinquency. In the first phase, this research uses quantitative methods by distributing questionnaires to 85 students as respondents which are then analyzed using SMART-PLS with structural equation model-partial least square (SEM-PLS) techniques. The second, qualitative phase conducted interviews with school principals, representatives of class teachers and counseling guidance teachers to get answers about school strategies in overcoming adolescent delinquency. Qualitative data was then analyzed thematically by compiling into program sections, sub-programs and descriptions. As a result, in direct testing, there are 2 accepted hypotheses: character-building competency against peer delinquency and delinquency behavior. However, peer delinquency does not have a positive and significant relationship with delinquency behavior. Indirect testing provided the finding that peer delinquency failed to mediate the relationship between character-building competency and delinquency behavior. Furthermore, based on the interviews conducted, a school program aims to overcome adolescent delinquency. The program involves internal and collaborates with external institutions such as KPAI, bhabinkamtibmas, and alumni who have achieved success. Then, the school also provides counseling on parenting by involving parents as participants. Thus, it can be seen that the school has taken a holistic and collaborative approach in dealing with juvenile delinquency. However, strong peer influence and lack of individual commitment may reduce its effectiveness.

Juvenile delinquency appears to be the most widespread social issue in comparison to other social issues. Social factors and conditions have a significant impact on the prevalence of delinquency. Individuals who engage in criminal behavior before reaching the age of 18 are commonly referred to as juvenile offenders. The aim of this study is to comprehensively elucidate the research and work carried out on juvenile offenders, with a specific focus on the critical role played by social factors in all facets of juvenile delinquency. Additionally, this research seeks to investigate the social roots and influences that contribute to the criminal behavior of young offenders. This article uses a literature review methodology to analyze research on social factors influencing juvenile delinquency. It synthesizes and evaluates prior findings to understand the complex interplay between social factors and young individuals' involvement in delinquent behaviors. The study analyzed 80 articles from reputable online databases, focusing on juvenile delinquency, offenders, crime, and social factors. Out of the 80 articles, 53 were cited, meeting inclusion criteria, including publication within 2000-2023, rigorous peer-review, and reputable database indexing. As per the findings of the research, it has been observed that children who grow up in households that exhibit affection, hospitality, and encouragement are comparatively less susceptible to the manifestation of societal maladies. Children who have experienced parental abandonment are at heightened risk of developing delinquent behaviors. The presence of negative family dynamics and associations with delinquent peers are widely recognized as significant contributors to the development of drug abuse behavior. It is imperative for policymakers and preventive initiatives to have a comprehensive understanding of this complex relationship. Therefore, this literature review presented a distinct overview of the influence of social factors on juvenile offenders in India.

BACKGROUND The Problem There is evidence of gang violence in low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia, and the prevalence of gangs is particularly well documented throughout Central and South America (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; Gatti et al., 2011). Official estimates of gang membership in Central America estimate approximately 69,000 members, while academic estimates believe this figure to be closer to 200,000 (UNODC, 2007). Some estimates are as high as 500,000 gang members in the region including South America and the Caribbean, and gangs have been identified as “the primary threat to regional stability and security” (Muggah & Aguirre, 2013). While reporting and recording issues make it difficult to estimate rates of gang violence, the homicide rate in Colombia, Brazil, El Salvador and Guatemala are substantially higher than those of European and North American countries (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; UNODC, 2007). Gangs are also active in South Africa, with an estimate of 100,000 members in Western Cape alone (Reckson & Becker, cited in Decker & Pyrooz, 2010); however, to date, there is limited research examining gangs in Africa and Asia...

Educational problems have for many years been identified as an important component for young people brought before youth courts. One important effect of delinquent behaviour is the impact of social influences and educational settings are key places for adolescent peer relationships to develop. A large body of research has focused on identifying reasons for this association (Elliot and Menard, 1996 , Lotz and Lee, 1999, Megens and Weerman, 2010), however there has been a need for rich information to be obtained in this area in order to ascertain reasons and provide further information with regard to the relationship; what comes first, association with delinquent peers or delinquent behaviour? This research fulfils the need to explore youth offenders‟ perceptions of their educational experience and in particular, to explore whether they refer to social factors when describing the influences upon their behaviour. Social Identity Theory (SIT), Tajfel and Turner, 1979 was drawn upon when discussing the results. Seven youth offenders (aged 14 – 18) participated in the research and all of the participants were subject to court orders. The youth offenders were interviewed individually using semi-structured interviews. Data was analysed by using inductive Thematic Analysis and the main research question was explored by using a model of generative causation. A distinction was found in terms of how far social factors impacted upon perceptions of education, as opposed to how far social factors impacted upon delinquent behaviour. All of the youth offenders perceived social factors as important when determining reasons for delinquent behaviour at school, males more so than females. However negative perceptions of education (in terms of academic success and relationships with teachers) already existed prior to joining delinquent peer groups and so these groups served to influence behaviour only. Support for Social Identity Theory (SIT), (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) was found as the youth offenders seemed to choose friendship groups based on peers who held similar views of education in terms of its importance, and in this sense, the peer group served to strengthen pre-existing perceptions, rather than create them. Friendship groups were also chosen in order to avoid engaging in challenging educational tasks. Situational factors for these observations were identified and some of these factors provided support for SIT, others, such as perception of unmet educational needs, did not. Implications of these findings were discussed in terms of practice within schools and for Educational Psychologists.

Most chapters include Reading Objectives, Introduction, Summary, Integration: Questions and Topics for Study and Discussion, and References. Preface. I. CONFORMITY, DEVIANCE, AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: The Sociological Perspective and Focus on Juvenile Delinquency. 1. Juvenile Delinquency: The Act, Actor, and Audience. What Is Juvenile Delinquency? Synthesized Definition of Delinquency. 2. Sociological Overview: Society, Norms, Conformity, and Deviant Behavior. The Sociological Perspective. The Social Nature of Humans. Norms. Sources of Norms. Folkways and Mores. Normative Behavior: Conformity. Deviant Behavior: Nonconformity. Negative Aspects of Deviance. Positive Aspects of Deviance. Juvenile Delinquency. 3. The Dimensions of the Delinquency Problem. Juvenile Delinquency Data. Official Sources of Delinquency Information. The Composite Delinquent Profile: Typical or Stereotypical? Unofficial Sources of Delinquency Information. The Magnitude and Trends of Juvenile Delinquency: Demographic Analysis. Addendum: A Balanced Perspective of American Youth. II. CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: Theory and the Etiology of Juvenile Delinquency. 4. Biological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. The Link between Biology and Behavior: Myths and Folklore. The Classical School of Criminological Thought. The Positive School of Criminology. Twentieth-Century Constitutional Typologies. The Continuing Search for the Biological Connection. Sociobiological Explanations. 5. Psychogenic Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. The Psychogenic Approach. The Discovery of the Unconscious. The Formation of Personality. Freudian Theory as an Explanation of and Delinquency. Psychoanalysis. Projective Tests. Delinquent Acts as Symptoms. Other Psychogenic Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency. Psychological Typology of Delinquency. Criticisms and Limitations of the Psychogenic Approach. 6. Sociological Explanations of Delinquency: Social Strain and Cultural Transmission Theories. Theory. Social Strain Theories. Cultural Transmission Theories. 7. Sociological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency: Social Learning and Social Control Theories. Social Learning Theories. Social Control Theories. 8. Sociological Explanations of Juvenile Delinquency: Labeling and Radical Theories. Labeling Theories. Radical Theories. An Overview of the Sociological Explanations. 9. The Future for Causal Explanations of Delinquency: The Ongoing Process of Theory-Building. Introduction: Review of Past Theory-Building for Explaining Juvenile Delinquency. Renewed Examination of Delinquency Motivation: Crime is Fun! Making Decisions for Delinquency: Rational Choice Theory. The Punishment Response: Deterrence Theory. Back to the Future: The Prospects and Direction for New Theory-Building. Concept Integration: Questions and Topics for Study and Discussion. III. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN SOCIAL CONTEXT. Introduction: Collective Behavior and Social Groupings. 10. The Family and Juvenile Delinquency. The Changing Role of the Family. Increasing Importance of the Nuclear Family and the Creation of Adolescence. The Family as an Agent of Socialization. Working Mothers and Juvenile Delinquency. Other Family Variables and Juvenile Delinquency. Broken Homes and Delinquency. The Family and Delinquency Prevention. 11. Schools and Delinquency. The School as an Arena. Schools and the Socialization Process. Juvenile Delinquency and the School Experience. Schools as a Screening Device. Schools as Combat Zones. School as Bureaucracy. Schools and Delinquency Prevention. 12. The Youth Subculture. Culture, Subcultures, and Countercultures. The Creation of a Youth Subculture. Role of the Youth Subculture. Distinctive Elements of the Youth Subculture. The Youth Subculture and Juvenile Delinquency. Youth Countercultures and Delinquency. The Youth Subculture and Delinquency Prevention. 13. Juvenile Gangs and Delinquent Behavior. The Solitary Delinquent. Group Delinquency. The Play Group. The Juvenile Gang. Contemporary Youth Gangs in the United States. The Motives for Gang Membership. Gang Organization. Composition of Gang Membership. Gang Violence. Dyads and Triads. Explanatory Theories of Gang Formation and Behavior: Summary and Synthesis. IV. SOCIAL CONTROL: THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM. Introduction: Elements of Social Control. 14. Juveniles and the Police. Juvenile Encounters with Police. Policing Juveniles. Police Discretion in Handling Juveniles. Police and Due Process. Police, Community Policing, and Delinquency Prevention. 15. Juvenile Courts. Historical Background of the Juvenile Courts. The Child Savers' Movement. The Juvenile Court. The Juvenile Court and Due Process. Juvenile Court Procedures. The Role of Attorneys in Juvenile Court. Criticisms of the Juvenile Court. The Multifaceted Juvenile Court. The Future of the Juvenile Court. 16. Juvenile Corrections. Social Control and Deterrence Theory. Voluntary Social Control. Informal Social Control. Formal Social Control. Deinstitutionalization, Community Corrections, and Diversion. Evaluation of Deinstitutionalization, Community Corrections, and Diversion. V. STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. Introduction: Approaching Treatment and Prevention in a Social Context. 17. Treatment and Prevention Strategies. Treatment Ideology and Delinquency Treatment Programs. Prevention Ideology and Delinquency Prevention Programs. Sociological Approaches to Delinquency Treatment and Prevention. Mobilizing the Community to Prevent Delinquency. Evaluation of Delinquency Treatment and Prevention Strategies. 18. Rethinking the Delinquency Problem. The Social Nature of Juvenile Delinquency. Eliminating the Marginal Status of Juveniles. Standardization or Elimination of Juvenile Codes. Decriminalization of Status Offenses. Revision of the Juvenile Court. Modification of Juvenile Corrections. Strengthening the Family. Changing the Educational System. Redefining Juvenile Delinquency. Glossary. Name Index. Subject Index.

Gender differences and juvenile delinquency: Results from the “international self-report delinquency study”

The International Self-Reported Delinquency Study – ISRD is comparative research conducted internationally on delinquency and victimization of children and youth. The study was launched in 1992, and repeated in three more sweeps, including the most recent one done in more than 50 participating countries between 2020 and 2022. The study is conducted through surveying children ages 13 to 17 (sample from schools). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the study was conducted in the second (ISRD2: 2006) and the third sweep (ISRD3: 2016) where the national representative sample was used. In the final, fourth cycle (ISRD4), the research was done in two cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo and Bihać, in which the data was gathered between April and December of 2022 in selected schools. Both selected cities were included in earlier research, through representative national sample only. The data was mostly gathered via an online questionnaire, however due to tech- nical constraints in a small number of schools a pencil-and-paper method was used instead. This reference study on delinquency and victimization of children and youth has two main objectives. The first objective is focusing on comparing differences, similarities, and trends in delinquencies and victimization between participating countries. The second objective is to explore and test theoretical queries linked with juvenile delinquency and victimization, while keeping the focus on the possibilities of using the study results for creation and realization of policies in this field.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, criminology has attempted to identify ecological factors affecting the rise or the decrease in crime rates. In this framework, concepts of “social disorganization”, “collective efficacy”, and “social capital” have been coined. Particularly in recent years, the perspective of “social capital” has attracted the interest of criminologists, but, despite the numerous studies conducted in this field, some issues remain open. Firstly, studies conducted outside the US context are few. Secondly, even in North American studies, there is a disagreement over the impact of social capital on crime, in particular on violent crimes. The results of this study, conducted on data obtained by the ISRD3 survey in 23 countries around the world, and addressed to 7th, 8th, and 9th grade students (N = 55,201), try to address such issue: they show a negative correlation between social capital and self-reported crime also outside North America, both for violent crimes and general delinquency. The preventive role played by social capital on crime is also confirmed considering the self-reported data on victimization.

BACKGROUND The self-report method has gained widespread use among researchers, both in the United States and abroad (Junger-Tas & Marshall, 1999; Klein, 1989). The International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD) is a large internationally collaborative self-report study of delinquency, victimization, and substance use of twelve to fifteen year old pupils in grades seven, eight, and nine. The ISRD project was developed to respond to the need for standardized, internationally comparable data on youth crime. International comparisons of survey data may only be made if all countries use the same (translated) questionnaires, and use comparable methods in questionnaire administration, sample selection, and data coding. The first ISRD study (1991–2) pioneered the use of standardized international self-report methodology on youth in thirteen countries (Junger-Tas et al., 2003). Fifteen years later, the study was repeated, this time with a larger number of countries and an expanded questionnaire (ISRD-2) (Junger-Tas et al., 2010). A third and larger ISRD study is planned for 2011–12. This chapter discusses the ISRD-2. ISRD-2 The main objectives of the project are to study crossnational variability as well as international trends in juvenile delinquency, substance use and victimization over time; to improve standardized self-report methodology for comparative purposes, and to generally advance comparative criminological research beyond the constraints of officially recorded crime. Official crime rates do not lead to valid international comparison, due to variations in crime definitions and in prosecution policies. Moreover, unlike official data, self-reports provide background information needed to test criminological theory (Junger-Tas & Marshall, 1999). The ISRD-2 aims to estimate the prevalence and incidence of youthful offending, substance use and victimization, as well as to examine the correlates of youth crime and to test different explanations of crime in thirty-one countries. The study also collects city- and country-level indicators.

* Preface * Introduction * Part I: Exploring Juvenile Crime * Chapter 1. The Magnitude of Juvenile Crime * Defining Juvenile Crime and Delinquency * The Nature of Juvenile Offenses * Measuring the Extent of Juvenile Crime * Official Arrest Statistics * Victimization Surveys * Self-Report Surveys * Chapter 2. Youth and Violence * Trends in Juvenile Arrests for Crimes of Violence * Firearms and Youth Violence * The Dynamics of Violent Juvenile Offending * Characteristics of Violent Juveniles * Victims of Juvenile Violence * Theories on Violent Juvenile Offending * Chapter 3. Kids, Drugs, and Crime * Juveniles and Drug Use * Juveniles and Alcohol Use * Juvenile Substance Abuse and Other Delinquent Behavior * Chapter 4. School Crime and Violence * Shootings and Fatalities at Schools * The Extent of School Crime * Dynamics of School Crime * Chapter 5. Youth Gangs,Criminality, and Violence * What Is a Youth Gang? * The Extent of Youth Gangs and Their Membership * Characteristics of Youth Gang Members * Youth Gangs, Crime, and Violence * Youth Gang Theories * Chapter 6. Dating Violence * The Dynamics of Dating Violence * The Characteristics of Teen Dating Violence * Teen Date Rape * What Causes Dating Violence? * Chapter 7. Family Violence * Dynamics of Family Violence * Kids and Domestic Homicides * Sibling Violence * Parent Battering * Grandparent Battering * Causes of Family Violence * Part II: Explaining Juvenile Crime * Chapter 8. Biological Perspectives on Delinquent Behavior * Early Biological Theories on Delinquency * Contemporary Biological Research on Delinquency * Chapter 9. Psychological Perspectives on Delinquency * Psychoanalytic Theories and Delinquency * Personality Disorder Theories and Delinquency * Psychiatric Theories and Concepts of Delinquency * Chapter 10. Sociological Perspectives on Delinquent Behavior * Social Control Theories and Delinquency * Strain Theories and Delinquency * Cultural Transmission Theories and Delinquency * Radical Criminological Theories and Delinquency * Chapter 11. Intrafamilial Causes and Correlates of Juvenile Delinquency * Child Maltreatment and Delinquency * Intergenerational Violence, Child Abuse, and Delinquency * Broken Homes and Delinquent Behavior * Familial Factors and Delinquency * Part III: Juvenile Crime and the Justice System * Chapter 12. The Police and Juvenile Criminals * Police and Juvenile Arrests * Police Contact with the Juvenile Offender * Police Discretion and the Juvenile Offender * Youth Attitudes Toward Police * Chapter 13. Juvenile Offenders and the Juvenile and Adult Courts * The Origins of the Juvenile Justice System * U.S. Supreme Court Cases and Juvenile Justice * The Juvenile Court and Serious Juvenile Offenders * The Criminal Court and Serious Juvenile Offenders * Chapter 14. Juveniles in Custody and Confinement * Juvenile Offenders in Adult Correctional Facilities * Juvenile Offenders in Juvenile Custody Facilities * Minority Youths in Custody * Modes of Adaptation to the Institutional Setting for the Juvenile Offender * Youth Offending in Juvenile Correctional Institutions * Aftercare and the Serious Juvenile Offender * Part IV: Responding to Juvenile Delinquency and Criminality * Chapter 15. Prevention and Control of Juvenile Crime * Federal Responses to Juvenile Crime and Delinquency Prevention * Child Protective Services * Delinquency Prevention and Control Strategies * References * Index

This article provides an overview of what is known about the prevalence, diagnosis, and effective treatment of mood disorders among youths, particularly among juvenile offenders, and discusses the unique problems that arise for the delivery of treatment services. The relationship between mood disorders and disruptive or delinquent behaviors as well as the particular importance of proper diagnosis and treatment of mood disorders in this population are discussed. A search was conducted of the MEDLINE and PsycINFO databases for articles that had been published since 1980 on mood disorders in the juvenile offender population as well as articles on adolescent mood disorders. The studies on the prevalence of mood disorders among juvenile offenders varied significantly in the methodology used and in the rates of prevalence found, although all studies showed that this population had high rates of mood disorders. The identification and effective treatment of mood disorders is critical because these disorders are a leading cause of suicide among adolescents and because mood disorders may contribute to or exacerbate delinquent and disruptive behaviors. Juvenile detainees have a constitutional right to needed mental health treatment. More comprehensive mental health services are required to ensure that juvenile offenders with mental illness are identified and cared for appropriately. Doing so not only will alleviate painful symptoms but may also contribute significantly to improvements in psychosocial functioning, interpersonal relations, and school performance and to decreases in delinquent, disruptive, and suicidal behaviors.